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Tudományos Mozaik 10.
TPF
AZ ADÓKULCSOK ÉS AZ ADÓKVÓTÁK ALAKULÁSÁNAK ELEMZÉSE Dr. habil. SUHÁNYI Erzsébet – Ing. Jarmila HORVÁTHOVÁ, CSc. Tomori Pál Főiskola, Univerzity of Prešov in Prešov A tanulmány célja a szlovák adórendszer rövid jellemzése, az adókulcsok alakulásának elemzése, amelyek az állami költségvetés bevételének részét képezik, hangsúlyt fektetve a jövedelemadóra, a társasági adóra és a hozzáadottérték-adóra, mégpedig ezek bevezetésének első évétől számítva egészen a mai napig. A tanulmányban továbbá összehasonlításra kerül az Európai Unióban működő adóalanyok teljes adóterhe a világ két fejlett országáéval, szlovák adóalanyok teljes adóterhe az Európai Unió átlagával. Az adóteher szemléleténél az adókvóta mutatót alkalmazzuk, ami jelenleg az adóterhek mérésénél és összehasonlításánál a leggyakrabban használt mutatók közé tartozik. Kulcsszavak: jövedelemadó, társasági adó, hozzáadott-érték adó, adókvóta. BEVEZETŐ Történelmi szempontból az adózás úgy jellemezhető, mint állami kényszerforma. Az adó kötelező, törvényben megszabott befizetés, amely bizonyos karakterekkel rendelkezik. A befizetés nem specifikus jellegű, amit az adóalanyok befizetnek vagy elvezetnek törvényben meghatározott összegben és határidőben az illetékes költségvetésbe. Általában ez ismétlődő befizetés a természetes személyek vagy jogi személyek által. (Vlachynský, 2012, 59.oldal) A szlovák jogszabály szerint az adó olyan természetes személyek vagy jogi személyek általi befizetés, ami kikényszeríthető, vissza nem térítendő, általában nem specifikus, törvényben meghatározott és rendszeresen ismétlődő, és amit az állam vagy a helyi önkormányzati hatóság beszed a közös költségvetések és elkülönített alapok javára, előre meghatározott összegben és pontosan meghatározott lejáratú közkiadások megtérítésére szolgál. Az adó a piacgazdaság nagyon fontos és jelentős gazdasági és politikai eszköze. Ahhoz, hogy egy ország adórendszere hatékony legyen, össze kell fonni az állam igényeit (állami költségvetést) a vállalkozási szféra és a fogyasztók érdekeivel, ami azonban eléggé nehéz. Minden ország gazdasági és társadalmi szemszögből nézve fokozatosan alakult ki, bizonyos mértékig eltérően. E szerint ezekben az országokban fokozatosan kialakultak a relatívan eltérő adórendszerek is és különböző típusú adókat alkalmaznak. Így minden ország fejlődésében a sajátosságok okozzák azt, hogy az egyes országokban alkalmazandó adórendszerek eltérő módon fejlődnek, ami megfelel az ország konkrét feltételeinek és gazdasági céljának. Tehát törvényszerű, hogy egymástól bizonyos mértékig különböznek. A Szlovák Köztársaság adórendszerét a jövedelmi és társasági adóról szóló törvény, a hozzáadottérték-adóról szóló törvény, a fogyasztási adókról szóló hat törvény, helyi adókról és helyi illetékekről szóló törvény szabályozza. Fontos adójellegű befizetések közé tartoznak a szociális biztosításra és egészségügyi biztosításra fizetendő járulékok is.
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Az adókulcsok és az adókvóták alakulásának elemzése
Dr. habil. Suhányi Erzsébet, Ing. Jarmila Horváthová, CSc.
1. ábra: Adóbefizetések Szlovákiában
Forrás: Saját szerkesztés
1. KÖZVETLEN ÁLLAMI ADÓK ELEMZÉSE A jövedelmi adóknak a legtöbb államban nagyon fontos pozíciójuk van. Így van ez Szlovákiában is. Az 1993. január 1-től hatályos új adórendszer a jövedelmi adónak két típusát különbözteti meg – a személyi jövedelemadót és a társasági adót. A személyi jövedelemadó helyettesítette az adóreform előtti lakossági jövedelemadót, a munkabéradót, az irodalmi és művészeti tevékenységből származó jövedelem adóját. A társasági adó helyettesítette a jövedelemadót, a mezőgazdasági adót és a nyereségadót. (Schultzová, 2011, 42.oldal) A személyi jövedelemadó tehát 1993. január 1-től lett bevezetve. 2003-ig ez a progresszív mozgó tarifájú adó volt érvényben (a százalékos adókulcs nőtt a jövedelem nagyságával együtt). A jogi személyek jövedelmét lineáris adókulccsal adóztatták. A 2004-es évtől bevezették az egykulcsos adót (a százalékos adókulcs mindig ugyanolyan). Az egykulcsos adó bevezetésének előfeltétele az volt, hogy minden fajta nyereséget és minden nagyságú nyereséget egyformán adóztattak, és ezzel elérhető a maximális igazságosság, teljes semlegesség, egyszerűsítés és hatékonyság. A 2013-as évtől kezdve a személyi jövedelem adóztatásánál újra progresszív adót vezettek be.
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Tudományos Mozaik 10.
TPF
A jövedelemadó fő küldetése biztosítani az állami költségvetés bevételének áramlását és részt venni az olyan pénzügyi kapcsolatok biztosításán, ami az állam funkcióinak teljesítésével kapcsolatosak. A jövedelemadó csökkenti az adóval terhelt szubjektumok rendelkezésre álló jövedelmét. A személyi jövedelemadó A személyi jövedelemadó szubjektuma az adófizető (természetes személy), akinek adóköteles jövedelme van és - akinek Szlovákia területén van az állandó lakhelye, vagy aki itt tartózkodik legalább 183 napot az adott naptári évben, - akinek Szlovákia területén nincs állandó lakhelye, de adófizetési kötelessége van olyan jövedelmekből, amelyek forrása Szlovákia területéről származik, - akinek állandó lakhelye külföldön van, és akit jogi személy Szlovákiába küldött szakértőként azzal a céllal, hogy a hazai székhelyű jogi személyeknek szakmai segítséget nyújtson és csak szakmai segítség céljából tartózkodik itt. Az adó tárgyát képező jövedelmeket 4 csoportba lehet sorolni: - munkaviszonyból származó jövedelmek, - jövedelmek, amelyek vállalkozási tevékenységből, egyéni pénzkereső tevékenységből vagy bérbeadásból származnak, - tőkevagyonból eredő jövedelmek, - egyéb jövedelmek. Az adóalapot az egyes jövedelmi csoportok részleges adóalapjainak összege képezi. Az adókulcs Szlovákiában 2013. január 1-től 19 % abból az adóalapból, ami nem haladja meg a létminimum176,8-szorosát (a 2013-as évben ez az összeg 34 401,74 euró). Abból az adóalap részből, ami meghaladja az érvényes létminimum 176,8-szorosát, az adókulcs 25 %. 1. táblázat: A személyi jövedelemadó kulcsok alakulása, 1993-2013 Évek
1993
1994 – 1999
2000 – 2001
2002 – 2003
2004 – 2012
2013 -
Adókulcs
15 – 47 %
15 – 42 %
12 – 42 %
10 – 38 %
19 %
19 és 25 %
Forrás: Saját szerkesztés a jövedelemadóról szóló 286/1992. számú törvény és ennek módosításai, a jövedelemadóról szóló 595/2003. számú törvény és ennek módosításai szerint.
A társasági adó Szlovákiában a társasági adó a személyi jövedelemadó mellett a jövedelemadó második részét képezi. A társasági adó szubjektumai azok a jogi személyek, amelyek vállalkozás céljából alakultak, és azok a jogi személyek, amelyeket nem vállalkozás céljából alakultak, de vállalkozási tevékenységet végeznek nyereségszerzés céljából. Adó tárgyát képezik: - azoknál a jogi személyeknél, akik vállalkozás céljából létesültek, az összes jövedelem, - azoknál a jogi személyeknél, akik nem vállalkozás céljából létesültek, csak azok a jövedelmek képezik az adó tárgyát, amelyek nyereséget termelnek.
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Az adókulcsok és az adókvóták alakulásának elemzése
Dr. habil. Suhányi Erzsébet, Ing. Jarmila Horváthová, CSc.
Az adóalap kiszámítása a következőképpen történik: - azok a jogi személyek, amelyek kettős könyvvitelt vezetnek, a bevételek és ráfordítások különbözete, - azok a jogi személyek, amelyek egyszeres könyvvitelt vezetnek, a pénzbevételek és pénzkiadások különbözete. Szlovákiában a jogi személyek adókulcsa 2012-ig 19 % volt. Az adómérték 2013 óta az adóalap 23 %-a. 2. táblázat: A társasági adókulcsok alakulása, 1993-2013. évek Évek
1993
1994 – 1999
2000 – 2001
2002 – 2003
2004 – 2012
2013 –
Adókulcs
45 %
40 %
29 %
25 %
19 %
23 %
Forrás: Saját szerkesztés a jövedelemadóról szóló 286/1992. számú törvény és ennek módosításai, a jövedelemadóról szóló 595/2003. számú törvény és ennek módosításai szerint.
2. KÖZVETETT ÁLLAMI ADÓK ELEMZÉSE Ez újabb adótípus, ami manapság különösképpen elterjedt. Az adó tárgya lehet termékértékesítés vagy szolgáltatásnyújtás, a hozzáadott érték vagy bizonyos fajta termék fogyasztása. E szerint a közvetett adókat két csoportba oszthatjuk, univerzálisan és szelektíven szükséges adókra. A közvetett adók közös vonása az, hogy az adóalany az adófizető, az adó az ár részét képezi, a vevőt terheli, figyelmen kívül hagyja a vevő szubjektív szempontjait és az adómérték proporcionálisan van meghatározva százalékban vagy fix összegben. (Vlachynský, 2012, 284.oldal) Az univerzális közvetett adó az ad valorem adócsoportba tartozik. Az árhoz százalékos felárként van megszabva. Szlovákiában ebbe a csoportba soroljuk a hozzáadottérték-adót, amelyet 1993. január 1-jén vezettek be. -
A hozzáadottérték-adó tárgyát képezik az adóköteles ügyletek: az ellenérték fejében átadott termék, az ellenérték fejében nyújtott szolgáltatás.
Az adóalany minden olyan természetes és jogi személy, aki önállóan végez bármilyen gazdasági tevékenységet, függetlenül attól, hogy vállalkozási tevékenységének mi a célja és milyen az eredménye. A hozzáadottérték-adó kötelező adófizetője az adóalany akkor, ha az előző 12 naptári hónapban forgalma meghaladta a 49 790 eurós összeget. A hozzáadottérték-adó kulcsa jelenleg 20 %. A könyvek és néhány egészségügyi kellékek adókulcsa 10 %.
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Tudományos Mozaik 10.
TPF
3. táblázat: A hozzáadottérték-adó kulcsok alakulása, 1993-2013 Időszak
Csökkentett adókulcs
Általános adókulcs
1993/01 – 1993/07
5
23
1993/08 – 1995/12
6
25
1996/01 – 1999/06
6
23
1999/07 – 2002/12
10
23
2003/01 – 2003/12
14
20
2004/01 – 2006/12
-
19
2007/01 – 2010/04
10
19
2010/05 – 2010/12
6; 10
19
2011/01 –
10
20
Forrás: Saját szerkesztés a hozzáadottérték-adóról szóló 222/1992. számú törvény és ennek módosításai, a hozzáadottérték-adóról szóló 222/2004. számú törvény és ennek módosításai szerint.
A szelektív közvetett adó csak a meghatározott termékeket érinti. A fiskális funkciója mellett prohibitív hatása van. Pontosabban ezekről a termékekről beszélünk: - alkohol, - bor, - sör, - dohánytermékek, - ásványi olajok (benzin és nafta), - villanyáram, szén és földgáz. Ezeket a fogyasztási adókat egyszerre szedik be, egy szinten, általában a szelektív termékek az adóraktár-üzemeltető ráktárból való kiadásakor és forgalomba hozásakor, vagy az országba való behozatalakor. Adóhatásuk a lakosságra közvetett – a vásárolt termék és szolgáltatás árában van. Tehát az adófizető a fogyasztási adót hozzászámolja az árhoz, ezzel áthárítja a fogyasztóra (csak egyszer szabja ki az adó tárgyára). 3. SZLOVÁKIA ÉS AZ EURÓPAI UNIÓ ADÓKVÓTÁJÁNAK ÖSSZEHASONLÍTÁSA A tanulmány e részének célja a szlovák adóalanyok adóterhének elemzése az Európai Unió keretein belül. Az egyes országokban érvényes adóteher megfigyelésére általában két típusú mutató alkalmazható. Ezek a következők: - adókvóták, - effektív adómértékek. Az adókvóta mutató a leggyakrabban használt mutató az adóterhek mérésénél. Az állam általában egy éves intervallumokban szemlélteti. Az adókvóta olyan makroökonómiai mutató, amely a beszedett adók és a GDP hányadosa. Az Európai Unió tagállamaiban a GDP nagysága az ESA 95 (Európai Statisztikai Hivatal) módszere szerint kerül meghatározásra, azaz eredményszemléletű (tranzakciók és egyéb gazdasági áramlások abban a pillanatban kerülnek rögzítésre, amikor a gazdasági érték keletkezik, átalakul és megszűnik – így magába
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Az adókulcsok és az adókvóták alakulásának elemzése
Dr. habil. Suhányi Erzsébet, Ing. Jarmila Horváthová, CSc.
foglal minden olyan eseményt, ami kihatással van a kormányzati szektor pénzügyi teljesítésre, pozícióra vagy likviditására). Schultzová szerint (2009, 24.oldal) Szlovákiában három adókvótát tartanak számon, amelyeket a következő módon fejeznek ki: az állami költségvetés adókból származó bevételei I. adókvóta:
= GDP
járulékok biztosítási alapokba (egészségügyi és szociális biztosítás) II. adókvóta:
= GDP
egyéb járulékok és illetékek III. adókvóta:
=
(koncessziós illetékek, termelők és importőrök befizetései a reciklációs alapba, licencdíjak, kötelező tanúsítási díjak, autópálya matricák, stb.)
GDP
Az államok adókvótáinak adatait az OECD rendszeresen elemzi. Másik intézet, amely többek között foglalkozik az adókvóták elemzésével, az Eurostat. Az adókvóta százalékban kifejezett mutatószám, ami tökéletesen megfelel az összehasonlítás céljának. A „számláló” terjedelme szerint (azaz a figyelembe vett közbevétel terjedelme szerint) megkülönböztetünk egyszerű adókvótát és összetett adókvótát (más néven aggregált). Az I. és II. adókvóta együttesen alkotja az összetett adókvótát, ami a szubjektumok adóterhelését és járulékterhelését képviseli. Az összetett adókvóta megfelelő makroökonómiai mutató, amit az adóteher nemzetközi összehasonlításnál nagyon gyakran alkalmaznak. Hátránya, hogy nem ad információt az adott ország adóterhének megoszlásáról, illetve az adó szerkezetéről. Az Európai Bizottság 2011-es évi jelentése szerin az Európai Unió a magas adók zónája. Mint az alábbi ábrán is látható, a világ három legfejlettebb ipai központja közül az Európai Unió összetett adókvótája hosszútávon a legmagasabb. A GDP súlyozott átlagának 38,8 %-át képviseli, ami körülbelül egyharmadával több, mint az USA-ban és Japánban elért eredmény.
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Tudományos Mozaik 10.
TPF
2. ábra: Az Európai Unió, a Japán és az USA összetett adókvótája a GDP %-ban 1985, 1995, 2008, 2011 években
Forrás: Saját szerkesztés Korečko,J.-Suhányiová,A. szerint (2012, 86. oldal)
Az Európai Unió adószintje azonban nem csak ezzel a két országgal összevetve magasabb, de más fejlett ország gazdaságával szemben is. 2011-ben a teljes adórészesedés a GDPn (azaz 27. tagállamban az adók és az egészségügyi és szociális járulékok összegének részesedése a GDP-n) 38,8 %-át képezte, több mint 40 %-kal több mint az USA-ban és Japánban regisztráltak. Az alábbi táblázat az Európai Unió és Szlovákia adókvótáját és ennek fejlődését mutatja 1995-től 2011-ig. 4. táblázat: Az összetett adókvóta részesedése a GDP-n %-ban kifejezve – súlyozott átlag, 2000-2011 Évek
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
EU – 27
40,4
39,5
38,9
38,8
38,7
39,0
39,5
39,4
39,3
38,4
38,3
38,8
SZLOVÁKIA
34,1
33,1
33,0
32,9
31,5
31,3
29,3
29,3
29,3
28,9
28,1
28,5
ebből:
-
közvetett adók
12,5
11,3
11,4
11,9
12,3
12,6
11,5
11,4
10,8
10,7
10,4
10,8
-
közvetlen adók
7,4
7,5
7,1
7,1
6,1
6,0
6,1
6,2
6,5
5,5
5,4
5,4
-
járulékok biztosítási alapokba
14,1
14,3
14,6
13,8
13,1
12,6
11,7
11,7
12,0
12,7
12,3
12,3
Forrás: Saját szerkesztés a Szlovák Pénzügyminisztériumi adatbázisa alapján, https://www.finance.gov.sk/Default.aspx?CatID=7432
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Az adókulcsok és az adókvóták alakulásának elemzése
Dr. habil. Suhányi Erzsébet, Ing. Jarmila Horváthová, CSc.
A megfigyelt évek alatt a szlovákiai adóteher csökkent 5,6 %-kal. Az európai tagállamok közül az adóteher legnagyobb csökkenése éppen Szlovákiában volt. Az Európai Unióban a fejlődés megfelelő és stabilabb Szlovákiához viszonyítva. ÖSSZEFOGLALÁS Szlovákia adórendszerének fő jellemzői hasonlóak az Európai Unió többi tagállamáéval. Elmondható, hogy az adóbeszedés aránya a GDP-hez viszonyítva az utóbbi tíz évben csökkenő tendenciát mutat. Sajátos azonban az összetett adókvóta szerkezete, mivel a biztosítási járulékok képezik az állami költségvetés legfontosabb bevételét. Második legnagyobb forrás a közvetett adó és a jövedelemadó csak a harmadik helyezést érte el. A tanulmány a KEGA 007PU-4/2011. számú projekt keretében készült.
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Tudományos Mozaik 10.
TPF
Irodalomjegyzék [1] Korečko, J. – Suhányiová, A.: Daňový systém Slovenskej republiky a jeho postavenie v rámci Európskej únie. Prešov : Bookman, 2012. 141 p. ISBN 978-80-89568-52-9. [2] Korečko, J.: Harmonizácia daní a daňové zaťaženie v krajinách EÚ. In: National and regional economich VIII. [online 14.9.2013] Hozzáférhetőség: http://www3.ekf.tuke.sk/konfera2010/zbornik/files/prispevky/KoreckoJaroslav.pdf [3] Nerudová, D.: Harmonizace daňových systému zemí Evropské unie. 3. vydání. Praha : Wolters Kluwer ČR, 2011. 320 p. ISBN 978-80-7357-695-0. [4] Schultzová, A. a kol.: Daňovníctvo. 2. vydanie. Bratislava : Iura Edition, 2009. 238 p. ISBN 978-80-8078-264-1. [5] Schultzová, A. a kol.: Daňovníctvo – daňová teória a politika I. Bratislava : Iura Edition, 2011. 260 p. ISBN 978-80-8078-407-2. [6] Široký, J.: Daně v Evropské unii. 5. vydání. Praha : Linde, 2012. 400 p. ISBN 978-807201-881-9. [7] Suhányi, L.: Strategické investičné rozhodovanie na úrovni regiónu. Prešov : Prešovská univerzita v Prešove. 2011. 210 p. ISBN 978-80-555-0312-7. [8] Vlachynský, K. a kol.: Finančný slovník výkladový. Bratislava : Iura Edition, 2012. 504 p. ISBN 978-80-8078-469-0. [9] http://portal.statistics.sk [10] Taxation trends in the European Union. Eurostat Statistical books 2013. ISSN 18318789. [online 12.9.2013] Hozzáférhetőség: https://www.finance.gov.sk/Default.aspx?CatID=7432 [11] A jövedelemadóról szóló 286/1992. számú törvény és ennek módosításai, a jövedelemadóról szóló 595/2003. számú törvény és ennek módosításai szerint [12] A hozzáadottérték-adóról szóló 222/1992. számú törvény és ennek módosításai, a hozzáadottérték-adóról szóló 222/2004. számú törvény és ennek módosításai szerint
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Tudományos Mozaik 10.
TPF
A MÚLT ÉS A JÖVŐ HATÁRÁN Dr. Szűcs Olga főiskolai tanár, Tomori Pál Főiskola A művészet jelenségeiben, társadalmi állapotok tükröződését kell észrevennünk és az esztétika elméleteiből társadalmi jelentőségű mondanivalót kell kihallanunk. A jelen tanulmány kiindulópontja szerint a művészet, s ezen belül természetesen az iparművészet is, az emberi önkifejezés és önmegvalósítás legadekvátabb formája. A tanulmány az iparművészet jelentőségével és jelen társadalomban elfoglalt helyével foglalkozik. Az utóbbi évek jelenkori társadalomról, kortárs művészetről, a mai emberről szóló elméleti igényű írásait alapvetően egy mély szál fonja összefüggő gondolat-füzérbe: korunk válságjelenségeinek sokoldalú észrevételezése. E lajstrombevétel korántsem jelenti mindig a jelenlévő problémák tudatosulását, vagy akár explicit megnevezését, sokkal inkább egy olyan folyamatot, amely során a korunkban tapasztalható jelenségek puszta leírása is elegendő a nyilvánvaló válsághelyzet konstatálására. Ugyanakkor a korproblémákra való reflektálás olvasható ki még a ma oly divatos elméleti áramlatokból és azok elemzéséből is. Írásunk abból az alig cáfolható hipotézisből indul ki, amely szerint korunk lényeges és jellemző társadalmi jelenségeit, az azokat kifejező elméleti igényű áramlatait nem lehet egymástól izoláltan szemlélni. Nem létezik gondolat, elmélet, eszme, amely ne a valóság valamely létező szegmensét fejezné ki, ne ahhoz szólna hozzá, vagy akarva-akaratlanul ne értékelné azt. Különösen érvényes ez az emberről és művészeti tevékenységéről tanúskodó jelenségekre, illetve elméletekre. Mindezek miatt mi sem tehetjük meg, hogy a művészetben tapasztalható jelenségekről, csak a konkrét tárgyra koncentrálva, öncélúan, általánosabb társadalmi kontextus nélkül szóljunk. Annál is inkább, mert kiindulópontunk szerint a művészet, s ezen belül természetesen az iparművészet is, az emberi önkifejezés és önmegvalósítás legadekvátabb formája. Sőt, ezen a nyomvonalon haladva a legnyilvánvalóbb következtetésként azt a kijelentést is felvállaljuk, amely szerint az ember művészeti tevékenysége rendkívül pontosan, és - a művész fokozottan intuitív érzékenységéből fakadóan - rendkívül mélyen mutat rá a művészet által kifejezett társadalmi közeg állapotára, és változásainak tendenciáira. Az előbbiekből egyenesen következik egy olyan integratív szemléletmódnak a szükségessége, amely minden jelenséget az ember-művészet-társadalom-tudomány összefüggésrendszerében vizsgál, vagyis a művészetet és az arról szóló elméleteket társadalom-, vagyis embertudományi relevanciával közelít meg. A művészet jelenségeiben, társadalmi állapotok tükröződését kell észrevennünk és az esztétika elméleteiből társadalmi jelentőségű mondanivalót kell kihallanunk. A művészet - keletkezése óta, immár több ezer éve - az adott kor kultúrája szempontjából létfontosságú problémákra fókuszál. A korprobléma a műalkotásokban vagy a kor jellemző ellentmondásait explikáló korkritikaként, vagy a korszak uralkodó ideáljainak ábrázolásaként jelenik meg. Mindkettőt az értékközpontúság köti össze. Mai korunk művészete és az azt leíró és értelmező esztétika jelenleg elsősorban korkritikai funkciót lát el. Teszi ezt azzal, hogy mind a kortárs művészet, mind pedig az esztétikai nézetek összessége egy sor nagyon komplex társadalmi-értékrendbeli válságjelenséget láttat. De vajon hogyan tükröződik e válságállapot a művészetben és a művészet jelenségeit értelmező elméleti nézetekben? Elsősorban egy sor tartósan fennálló, paradigmatikus váltást jelző strukturális ellentmondás megjelenítése útján. A paradigmatikus váltást egy korábbitól eltérő értékrenden alapuló, vagy eleve a mértékadó értékrend szükségességét paradox módon tagadó művészeti gyakorlat és esztétikai szemléletmód elterjedése jelzi. A művészet, ahogyan a benne tükröződő társadalom is, válaszúthoz érkezett. Ma egy átmeneti, még véglegesen el nem döntött irányban haladó korszak hosszas vívódásainak vagyunk részesei, de szerencsénkre ennek a - 139 -
A múlt és a jövő határán
Dr. Szűcs Olga
korszaknak mindazonáltal jól elkülöníthető, a művészete által erőteljesen kifejezett jellemző jegyei mutathatók ki. A teljesség igénye nélkül vegyük őket sorra: 1., a közgazdasági paradigma által fémjelzett ellentmondás a piac keresletorientált és fogyasztáscentrikus követelményrendszere és a művészet eredendően szabad önkifejezési lényege között; 2., a műalkotásban kifejezett eszmei tartalom és az alkotás sokszor meghökkentő, vagy egyenesen visszataszító formai megjelenése közötti feszültség; 3., az új művészeti formák – virtualizáció, sokszorosíthatóság, computerizáció - által jelzett lemondás a műalkotás egyediségéről, amely egyúttal szakít az alkotó géniusz személyiségének az igénylésével is; 4., a demokratikusnak vélt művészeti alkotási folyamat és befogadásának beavatottság érzete közötti pszichológiai áthidalhatatlanság; és nem utolsó sorban 5., a legújabb esztétikai rendszerek műalkotásokat elemző módjának digitalizáltsága és az esztétikai értékrend minőségiről - mennyiségi szemléletre való áttérése. A kortárs művészetnek ezek a majd száz évvel ezelőtti kezdetekhez visszanyúló jellegzetességei komplex, tág látószögből való megközelítést és értékelést igényelnek, hiszen a leírt folyamatokból jelentős, egész társadalmi valóságunkra érvényes messze ható következmények adódnak. Vegyük sorra, a témánk szempontjából legjelentősebb következtetéseinket! Először is, a közgazdasági modell és szemléletmód utóbbi évtizedekben megfigyelhető, egész kultúrára való kiterjesztése összemossa a piac árufogalmát a műalkotás definíciójával. Ebből fakadóan a műalkotás többé már nem a korprobléma kreatív megoldására felszólító, modellfelmutató, tárgyiasult szellemi érték, hanem pusztán egy olyan árucikk, melynek értékét a piaci ára határozza meg. A művész már nem a kor lelkiismeretét és az ember társadalommal szembeni felelősségét felmutató géniusz, csupán piacképes áru legyártója. A piac pedig, az előbbi folyamatokból is fakadó öngerjesztő tendenciáknak megfelelően, az egyre alacsonyabb nívójú kulturális értéket igenlő kereslet követelményrendszere szerint működik. A műalkotásoknak ahhoz, hogy figyelemfelhívó és piacteremtő szerepüket teljesíthessék, egyre meghökkentőbbeknek, és a hagyományos művészeti kánonokkal szemben egyre sajátosabbaknak kell lenniük. Többek között ezért is találkozunk igen sokszor olyan alkotásokkal, amelyek éppen a valós élethelyzetek kiegyensúlyozó normalitását csapják arcul, és az emberi személyiség esetenként súlyosan patologikus vonásait domborítják ki. Mivel ezek a műalkotások igen távol esnek állnak az átlagos befogadó megértés- és toleranciaszintjétől, nagyon tág értelmezési tartományú, sokszor önkényesen szubjektív hermeneutikának biztosítanak túlságosan tág terepet. Mindenki, beleértve a kompetenciahiányban szenvedő, vagyis esztétikailag kevéssé művelt befogadót is, a kortárs műalkotások legnagyobb részét úgy értelmezi, ahogyan éppen lelkiállapota vagy képzelőerejének mértéke neki azt megengedi. A műalkotások kanonizálatlan, kizárólag egyéni szintű értelmezhetősége tovább szélesíti a szakadékot a valóság, és annak műalkotásokban megjelenő reprezentációja között. A művészet és a maga reális társadalmi közegében és probléma kontextusában élő ember közötti - korántsem csak digitális - szakadékot tovább tágítja a művészet technikai közvetítő közeg általi egyre erősebb virtualizációja is. Miközben folyton-folyvást a művészet mindenki, által gyakorolható, bárki által megérthető és elérhető demokratizmusáról hallunk, a kortárs művészet egyre szabadabban értelmezhető specifikus formai megoldásokkal kísérletezik, melynek eredményei, vagyis a műalkotások egyre kevésbé fejeznek ki generalizálható, társadalmi relevanciájú mondanivalót. A leírt folyamat korántsem ártalmatlan az emberi kultúrára és civilizációra nézve, ugyanis azzal, hogy virtuális falat épít a művész és a befogadó, a művészet és a realitás közé, a művészet ősi gyökereit vágja el - a való élettel és a társadalom probléma szerkezetével való azonosulást. Az algoritmikus esztétika megjelenése, kiegészítve a fent leírt folyamatokat a műalkotás minőségi értékelhetőségét digitális mennyiségi szemlélettel váltja fel. A jelenségből levonható tanulság kedvéért vizsgáljuk meg, hogyan teszi mindezt. Előszöris szögezzük le, hogy az algoritmikus esztétika célja nem kizárólag a komputer-művészet megjelenésével
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Tudományos Mozaik 10.
TPF
összefüggő művészeti gyakorlat analízise, sokkal inkább a műalkotások értékelésére szolgáló informatikai modell kidolgozása. Az elmélet egy közvetlen esztétikai élményből levezetett algoritmusra épül, amely az értékelés folyamatát digitalizált, számszerűsített részfolyamatokra bontja és a matematika formanyelvét alkalmazza esztétikai folyamatok leírására, műalkotások értékelésére. (A részfolyamatok digitalizáltsága ugyanakkor megengedi a közöttük lévő átmenetek következetességét.) Az alkalmazott algoritmus az input és output jelek vizsgálata során e két végpont közötti logikai összefüggést és az információ sajátos transzformációjának tartalmát elemzi. Mivel az elemezhető adatok mennyisége nincs meghatározva, éppúgy lehet átláthatatlanul sok, mint értékelhetetlenül kevés. Egy festmény (képzeljünk el ebben a szerepben bármelyik jól ismert monumentális alkotást), matematikai modellezése, a vászonra fektetett, kicsiny négyzetekből, pixelekből álló virtuális háló. Minden egyes pixel minőségeket (színt, árnyalatot, fényerősséget, élességet, formát, a pixel kompozíción belüli helyét, stb.) kifejező számsort jelöl. Ezen kívül, ezt az önmagában is roppant összetett számsort egy további egészíti ki, amely a festmény – szinte végtelenül sok látószögből való, illetve bármilyen külső fényforrás által megvilágított összképének - algoritmikus kifejezését adja. Az algoritmikus esztétika természetesen nemcsak képzőművészet elemzésére vállalkozik, hanem ennél még bonyolultabb alkotások, pl. egy balett előadás értékelésére is, ahol több művészeti ág találkozik, és ahol vizuális és auditív jelek rendszerét is egyeztetni kell. Törvényszerűen merül fel az információ szűrésének szükségessége, illetve a szelekció minőségi szempontok szerint működő algoritmus megalkotása, amit az algoritmikus esztétika nemhogy nem old meg, de meg sem említi, így végül a művészet lényege - kulturális kontextusa - negligálódik. A felsoroltakon kívül, talán a legnagyobb problémával a műalkotások esztétikai értékének komputerizált, gépesített, vagyis dehumanizált megállapításainál találkozunk. A leírt módszer szerint az esztétikai érték fokozatait az input és output információ közötti mennyiségi eltérés mértéke adja. Minél nagyobb a kettő közötti különbség, vagyis minél nagyobb az output információ növekménye, annál értéktelítettebb a műalkotás. Az időkoordinátát is figyelembe véve, minél intenzívebb egy műalkotás befogadóra gyakorolt hatása, vagyis minél erőteljesebb élményt tud minél rövidebb idő alatt nyújtani, annál értékesebb a szóban forgó műalkotás. Ez az élményt maximalizáló elv nélkülözi, s éppen a művészet esetében teljesen indokolatlan és megengedhetetlen módon a minőségi szempontok alkalmazását, és abszurd módon nem határozza meg azt a kritériumot, ami alapján különbséget lehetne tenni a műalkotás által gyakorolt pozitív és negatív emóciók között, vagyis esztétikailag azonos megítélés alá esik a gyönyörködés és az undor. A mai kor fent említett művészeti folyamatai alapvetően befolyásolják az ember, a művészet, a bennünket körülvevő valóságos társadalmi közeg kapcsolatát. A művészet, mióta ember él a földön mindig is az ember önkifejezésének legadekvátabb formája, az adott korszellemnek és korproblémának kifejezője, és ez utóbbi megoldásának sajátos, modellértékű kísérlete volt. A művészet valósággal való kapcsolata mindig társadalmi szerepvállalással párosult. A kortárs művészet korunkban erőteljesen megjelenő, a fent leírt jellemzőkkel bíró mai irányzatai esetében néhány alapvető, lényegi kérdéseket érintő következtetést le kell vonnunk. A művészeti érték szinte teljes relativizálása nemcsak a műalkotások formai és tartalmi kanonizálatlansága miatt következik be, hanem nem utolsó sorban a művészet társadalmi valóságtól való elkülönülése miatt is, s ez utóbbi együtt jár a tárgyi (anyagi) valóságtól való elhatárolódással is. A műalkotás - a technikai civilizáció általunk megélt korszakában - erősen relativizálódik az egyéni szubjektív megítélhetőség irányába. Ez a relativizmus, vagy ahogyan a filozófia megfogalmazná – szubjektív idealizmus, abszolút önkényes értelmezéseket tesz lehetővé. Ha a műalkotást annyiféleképpen lehet értelmezni, ahány befogadó vállalkozik erre, a műalkotás elveszíti közérthető, sokak számára világos, egyértelmű, vagyis társadalmi mondanivalót magába foglaló relevanciáját. Ezt a folyamatot egészíti ki a virtulizáció folyamata, ami által – az anyagisággal való szakítás folyamatában – a műalkotás még jobban elszakad a
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A múlt és a jövő határán
Dr. Szűcs Olga
konkrét anyagiságban is megjelenő valóságtól. Ezek a folyamatok, amennyiben felerősítik egymást, a művészet életproblémáktól való elszakadását eredményezhetik, és az ember művészeti tevékenysége elveszítheti alapvető lényegét, az ember önkifejezésének és társadalomábrázolásának funkcióját. E tendencia kiteljesedésének több művészeti ág is határt szabhat. Ezek közül az egyik legjelentősebb az iparművészet, illetve a hozzá szoros filozófiai szálakkal kapcsolódó, és újabban egyre inkább erőre kapó művészi aspirációjú és ihletettségű kézművesség. Mindkét módja az emberi alkotásnak, tehát mind az iparművészet, mind pedig a kézművesség visszavezeti az ember művészi tevékenységét az anyagi, illetve társadalmi kontextusába. Az ember problémamegoldó kompetenciája alapvetően ettől függ, tud-e kapcsolódni egy olyan alapvető önkifejezési módban, mint a művészet az őt körülvevő reális problémakontextusokba. Ennek hiányában mind a művészete, mind pedig a konkrét személyes és társadalmi élete szubjektivista, relativizáló, a virtualitás szintjén lezajló pótcselekvések halmaza.
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TPF
Irodalomjegyzék Bacsó Béla: „Mert nem mi tudunk…” Filozófiai és művészettörténeti írások. Budapest, Kijárat Kiadó. 1999. Belting, Hans: A művészettörténet vége. Budapest, Atlantisz Könyvkiadó. 2006. Bergyajev, Nyikolaj: Szmiszl tvorcsesztva.(Az alkotás értelme). Moszkva, Hranyitel Kiadó. 2007. Danto, Arthur C.: Hogyan semmizte ki a filozófia a művészetet? Atlantisz Kiadó, 1997. Dempsey, Amy: A modern művészet története. Képzőművészeti Kiadó, 2003. Magyari Beck István: A homo oeconomicustól a homo humanusig. Aula Kiadó, 2000. Magyari Beck István: Kulturális marketing és kreatológia. Semmelweis Kiadó, 2006.
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HUNGARIAN POLITICS AND THE EU AFTER 2010: SOME REFLECTIONS Dr Monika Pál főiskolai docens, Tomori Pál Főiskola The present article discusses some facets of the relationship of the Hungarian government to the European Union since the 2010 change of government. Since the 2010 the previously pro-European consensus within the moderate right of political elite has suffered a severe blow. The paper stries to unravel the motivations behind this change. The author states that the Hungarian ’double speech’ pursued by the government is logical and can be explained in a wider, more theoretical framework. It has ideological, historic and instrumental motivations alike. Moreover, it certainly has an influence on how the electorate views the European Union. An even though, an Eurosceptic turn is not drastic, it seems that the voters an increasingly and unequivocally less enthusiastic about the Union. The EU as an issue Political debates on the European Union were a natural part of the political agenda in the run up to the 2004 accession. Debates focused on advantages the EU could offer, negotiation strategies and to some extent on the various values the EU was meant to represent. Despite differences within the political elite, one thing was crystal clear: there was a massive consensus on the need for accesion, no matter whether it was explained by material, cultural, strategic or other considerations. Material explanations, represented by the Socialists after the transformation centered on the use of the EU as a financial pool that was to help the modernisation process. It seemed as a natural continuation of (economic) relations with the EC, though in a deeper and wider way, with the fundamental objective of attaining full membership. Cultural attachment to the West and return to Europe were considerd as natural and desirable phenomena. EU accession as an end in itself, therefore, was basically seen unproblematic. The conservative intepretation of Fidesz saw the EU as a useful place but Hungary’s position, as compared to other states, was more in the forefront of arguments. Negotiating a better deal at the time of accession was a clear opposition position that implied some covert resentment that the EU would not offer the best deal. In sum, Fidesz was more pragmatic and less blindly enthusiatic as compared to the Socialists who saw accession in itself as an objective and saw negotiating conditions of secondary importance. Thus, reservations the right side of the political spectrum had been there from the outset. Double speech Since 2010 the Fidesz-led government pursues a double speech policy towards the European Union, which reminds the onlooker of a stick and carrot policy. At home, the government is fighting a war of independence, projecting the European Union as a force that often acts against Hungarian interests, while it is more conciliatory abroad. Double speech, that is the policy of sending different messages home and to the EU, has an instrumental function. It solidifies the home electorate and creates a homogeneous electorate block from a heterogenous one by the use of the overriding national theme. The prevalence of the national question in Hungarian political parlance guarantees that other differences of the divergent electorate are overshadowed, or at least temporarily pushed into
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the background. Therefore, it is a rational motivation, in which the EU personifies as a scapegoat, the necessary evil that is at hand. It is the supranational Commission that has to bear the brunt of criticism, and in its capacity as the guardian of the Treaties, is held responsible for negative comments on the Hungarian government’s steps. Member states are also criticised and accused of painting a negative picture. One explanation for that was that they had a vested interest to do so. The governmental steps that raised taxes for foreign banks and multinational companies obviously hurt foreign economic interest, but no correlation has been proved between economic interest and diplomatic activity as Policy Solutions’ study has proved.1 Diplomatic conflicts were threefold, as Policy Solutions found: nationalities/national minorities living abroad, economic based conflicts and the general state of Hungarian democracy were the most contested issues. 12 member states criticised the state of Hungarian democracy, four MS the economic steps, while three states found Hungary’s steps unsatisfactory in the national-political sphere. Apart from communication, we can look at how the government acted in the Council, that is, in a sphere where it can indeed act in its capacity as the sole representative of Hungarian interests. The analysis derived from the data offered by VoteWatch show the following result. In its massive 466 votes in the Council of Ministers (14.07.200911.03.2013), only a single case (in legal affairs) shows Hungary’s dissatisfaction with the majority opinion and there were only six abstentions altogether. (One abstention in each areas of agriculture, civil liberties, environment and public health, and in regional development, while two in employment and social affairs.) Thus, behind the facade of rhetoric, a face of a cooperative Hungary could well be seen. Neverthless, communication towards the Commission and the Council in official diplomatic forms is much more restrained and cooperative than it seems from the government’s communication. Besides, there is a division of labour as well: the prime minister is combative style is toned done by the foreign minister’s rhetoric. It is obvious, that the most visible European Parliament, in its capacity as a debating chamber, serves as a real battle ground. The Hungarian issue has never been so much in the forefront of attention. Unluckily, Hungarian domestic issues stole the limelight from the real work of the Presidency in 2011, and controversies of the Basic Law and its successive amendments, media pluralism, and later debates on the Tavares Report2 and a possible use of Article 7 of the Treaties flamed debates.There is an interesting paradox as well. While political factions separate Hungarian Members of Parliament, reflecting the oppositional positions of domestic policy, at times, when Hungary’s interest is at stake, for instance, in the debates on the financial perspective or emergency relief in times of natural catastrophes, national solidarity overrules party division. Moreover, in certain policy fields, Fidesz and Socialist MEPs may even vote together, when, for instance they support Parliament’s view in opposition to the Council. In sum, opposition and cooperation shows a genuine ’variable geometry’ and double speech is more convoluted than it seems. It varies depending on institutions, issues and is may be resorted to as a leverage, a communication tool. The simplistic perception of „fighting at 1
Szövetségesi bírálatok össztüzében.A Policy Solutions elemzése a magyar kormány és az európai uniós tagállamok közti diplomáciai konfliktusokról.Policy Solutions. 2013 február,p.2 http://www.policysolutions.hu/userfiles/elemzesek/Sz%C3%B6vets%C3%A9gesi%20b%C3%ADr%C3%A1la tok%20%C3%B6sszt%C3%BCz%C3%A9ben.pdf 2 Report on the situation of fundamental rights: standards and practices in Hungary (pursuant to the European Parliament resolution of 16 February 2012) (2012/2130(INI)) http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+REPORT+A7-20130229+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN
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home and being nice abroad” is not true either. Rather double speech operates in two dimensions: diplomacy, real political steps and communication. Nevertheless, the question remains: how far the government is willing to go in its antiEU rhetoric and what consequences opening the Pandora’s box will have in the long-run. Mixed expectations and the electorate We can even ask what effect double speech has on the electorate. It seems, on the basis of Eurobarometer results, that EU–ethusiasmism on the wane since the accession, and even more so since 2010. We should not overestimate this negative trend, however, as it is in line with European trends, but at the same time cannot neglect it either. We can even say that despite the negative EU–rhetoric, the Hungarians are still supportive of the EU in general. What is frightenig however,that politics is playing with gut-instincts and does not approach the EU is rational terms. The overriding theme of the freedom fright, therefore, minimizes the chance for rational, inclusive debates on material rather than ideological issues. As Gabor Torok has pointed out, political governance has emerged recently. The autonomy of political actors, its modes of operation is clear-cut and identifiable. It has a consequence, however: economic rationale and economic policy governance have to fight for their independence, so that they are not submerged in the world of Realpolitik politics. In other words: that sheer economic-policy considerations fall prey to politics-driven conflicts. The EU where most discussions are around policy issues have been transformed into an arena where politics-centred, conflictual, zero-sum games are played. Interestingly, however, while a search for identity and the country’s status in the EU is on the agenda, there is hardly any discussion on the route the EU itself takes or the big politics questions of the future. The long-term vision of the EU, the degree of federalism the country would accept, or even a wish-list of what Hungary expects and wants from the EU is missing. Obviously, views on the EU in Hungary are a direct function of domestic considerations and everyday wranglings. The discussions on the EU and the nature of its crisis (and that of the whole western way of organisation) are intertwined with heated debates on Hungarian identity and history. The past has remained unfinished in Hungary. The definition of the country’s place in Europe has been a contention issues, and it still remains to be an open question whether Hungary is part of the west. The role of the EU is limited solely to the question of how much the EU is giving to Hungary. One explanation for this may be rooted in the general infantile attitude towards the state and public institutions.We have no basis for believing that teh ’spolied child’ attitude does not work in case of the EU. In short, the population still expects the state to operate as a father, and relies on it too heavily. The high level of paternalism is manifest in the high degree of expectation towards thet state. Paradocially, it is supplemented by a similarly high level of apathy or even dissatisfaction with the political institution. In times of economic crises, it seems natural that citizens expect a more densely-woven net that would defend then from the negative effects of the crisis in their private life. Therefore, the dissatisfaction could not be separated from general attitudes and trends, but at the same time, are clearly shaped by daily political rhetoric. This double-sided view of the role of politics - low trust in institutions and hightened expectations of a paternal state - is reflected present surveys as well. As the Eurobarometer of 2012 showed 3 67% of Hungarians expect the EU to take part in solving economic and 3
http://ec.europa.eu/magyarorszag/press_room/press_releases/20130724_eurobarometer_tavasz_opt_hu.htm
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financial crisis, showing a 9% increase, while the European average is 49%. This seems a considerable difference, but shows, at the same time, that reliance on the EU is significant, and has grown massively as compared to previous years. The paradox is that a higher level of dislike is combined with a higher level of trust in the EU as a problem-solver. To show that Europe is more than just a useful reference point, a scapegoat, we have to look at the cultural war side of the problem. The symbolic cultural war fought againts the EU is clearly related to sovereignty and independence. Independence won after 40 years of Communist rule was ’lost’ with accession in some minds. It is worth noting that a shift from compulsory accommodation and a very limited freedom of manoeuvre is difficult to digest or at least to comprehend, and some see the Brussels as a second Moscow. The independent, kuruc myth is still strong, and the often occupied existence or the inequal status in an Empire still hangs on. Frustration and a small nation’s inferiority complex does not help either. Besides this, the majoritarian view in political culture and the win-and-lose understanding of politics make it even harder to understand that the EU does not work in this way: it is directed towards consensus, takes into account minority opinion, and has an interest in satisfying the greatest number of actors. For instance, it does so through sweeteners in the debate on the financial perspective (the seven-year long budget) or via package-deals in the corridors of the Council. As to identity, national pride, self-awareness of national feeling and national citizenship should be reconciled with European citizenship. Eurobarometer results of 2012 show that 54% Hungarian respondents categorise themselves as European citizens, however, only 11% showed a clearly positive view, which is lower than the EU average and shows a 4% decrease. The biggest problem is, however, that welfare chauvinism, the opposition of measures the EU ’enforces’ on Hungary by arguing that they are in contrast to national economic interests, is mixed with criticism of the EU’s interference, and a breach of sovereignty and independence. That is the reason why it is hard to counter anti-EU sentiment. The biggest opposition party, the Hungarian Socialist Party (HSP) has been an advocate of proEuropeanness. However, their mixed messages and their turn are telling of the difficulty of countering populism and being pro-European at the same time: supporting the criticism against the Orban government spelled out by the Commission, but opposing the suspension of funds payable to Hungary as a punishment of non-compliance with EU rules is one example of this. Connected to welfare chauvism, the latest support for the government’s policy of lowering the utility prices is also supported by the HSP, even though Brussels is considering launching a procedure of non-compliance. The Hungarian Parliament has issued a political declaration in opposition to the Brussels bureaucracy’s pressure (’nyomásgyakorlás’) that envisages steps to alter the Hungarian policy on utilities. A great majority of members of Parliament voted in favour, while the biggest opposition party abstained, except for a single member from the Socialist group. This shows clearly that HSP is incapable of dealing with the problem of supporting populist welfare measures when they combined with an attack on the EU, an external scapegoat. In other words, courting the electorate in welfare issues and not making a firm stand in support of the EU leads to a two-hearted policy.4
4
"A magyar Országgyűlés felszólítja Magyarország kormányát, hogy ne engedjen az európai uniós bürokrácia nyomásának, védje meg hazánk alapszerződésekben garantált jogait, és következetesen folytassa a rezsicsökkentés politikáját". Politikai nyilatkozatot fogadtak el a rezsicsökkentés "megvédéséről http://nepszava.hu/cikk/1001197-politikai-nyilatkozatot-fogadtak-el-a-rezsicsokkentes-megvedeserol
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The International relations dimension The governments policy could be interpreted in the context of international relations theory as well. It can be explained as an interplay, a moving see-saw between the forces of globalisation/world economy and the national politics. World economy, or in our case the European reality, especially, highlighted by the present crisis, calls attention to the interconnectedness, interdepence of actors. The present euro crisis is a case in point: not protectionism and isolation, but more Europe, more integration seems to be a cure. A bank union, a fiscal union, in short, steps towards federalism have to be formed besides the monetary union. This could be called the ’tomato soup’ model, in which differences are minimal as seen from a long distance and at least the smallest common denominator has to be found. What we can call the the ’vegetable soup’ model is just the opposite: it is the real terrain of national politics. In this field, separation, difference and identity are the key notions. As a reaction to the homogenising effects of globalisation, regionalisation, the nation-state tries to solidify its position and national politics shows its uniqueness, or at least separateness, independence for the electorate. Paradoxically, the more integration is moving forward and the more sovereignty is handed over, the counterreaction of anti-EU feeling is getting stronger. This dynamism between these two forces is what makes it possible for the government to use, especially in economic independence and democracy issues the freedom fight rhetoric. Therefore, ’welfare chauvinism’ and national populism are not new inventions in Europe, but are used successfully for the first time in Hungary. Conclusions As we have seen the ideological, historic and instrumental aspects both play a role in the double speech rhetoric used by the second Orban government. The overall strenghtening of political governance and a fiercely ideological political communication pushes other considerations into the background at home. However, in practice, in Brussels and Strasbourg, the policy of accommodation is intertwined with a firm conflictual stance, that is, both streams are present. In sum, the double speech is more convoluted and operates on more than one level at home and abroad. The harm caused by the double speech is that the electorate is tending towards a more Eurosceptic direction. And that is bad news, at home and abroad.
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Dr. Monika Pál
BIBLIOGRAPHY Eurobarometer 2012 http://ec.europa.eu/magyarorszag/press_room/press_releases/20130724_eurobarometer_tava sz_opt_hu.htm Orbán Viktor:Kötcsei beszéd. 2010. http://www.hirextra.hu/2010/02/18/megorizni-a-letezesmagyar-minoseget-orban-kotcsei-beszede-szorol-szora/ Hol áll a PERC-mutató? Avagy az EU-destruktívoktól a föderalistákig: a pártok viszonya az Európai Unióhoz. A Magyarországi Európa Társaság kutatócsoportjának jelentése 2012. december. http://www.europatarsasag.hu/images/2012dec/perc_web.pdf Lesz-e magyar felzárkózás.Portfólió. 17 Oct 2013http://www.portfolio.hu/gazdasag/lesze_magyar_felzarkozas_csipos_megjegyzesek.4.190600.html Kiss J. László: Kölcsönhatás vagy ellentét? Az integrécióés a nemzeti érdek viszonya. in Kiss J. László: Közösségi politikák- nemzeti politikák. A Tizenötök EU-rópái. Budapest: BKE, Nemzettközi Kapcsolatok Tanszék.Osiris, 1997.(pp.7-19.) Politikai nyilatkozatot fogadtak el a rezsicsökkentés "megvédéséről", 21. Oct. 2013 http://nepszava.hu/cikk/1001197-politikai-nyilatkozatot-fogadtak-el-a-rezsicsokkentesmegvedeserol Report on the situation of fundamental rights: standards and practices in Hungary (pursuant to the European Parliament resolution of 16 February 2012) (2012/2130(INI)) http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+REPORT+A7-20130229+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN Szövetségesi bírálatok össztüzében.A Policy Solutions elemzése a magyar kormány és az európai uniós tagállamok közti diplomáciai konfliktusokról.Policy Solutions. February 2013.http://www.policysolutions.hu/userfiles/elemzesek/Sz%C3%B6vets%C3%A9gesi%20 b%C3%ADr%C3%A1latok%20%C3%B6sszt%C3%BCz%C3%A9ben.pdf
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ANALYSIS OF THE SYSTEM OF FINANCING LOCAL PUBLIC INVESTMENTS IN SLOVAK REPUBLIC Ing. Ladislav Suhányi, PhD. University of Prešov in Prešov, Faculty of Management, Department of Marketing and International Trade, Slovak Republic The aim of the paper is to describe and to analyze the system of financing local public investments in Slovak Republic. The first part of the paper shows the classification of the national economy according to ESA 95. The second part describes the system of Public Administration in the conditions of the analyzed country (Slovak Republic). The last part is the analytical part, where is analyzed the system of financing local public investments from internal and external sources of the Local Self-Government. This paper was prepared with the support of the grant VEGA 1/0760/13. Key words: local public investments, internal sources, external sources, self-governments 1 PUBLIC SECTOR According to the European System of Accounts (ESA 95) classification, the national economy consists of the following sectors: nonfinancial corporations (institutional entities with the character of market producer, various types of enterprises and companies including state enterprises as well as contributory and non-profit organisations, covering with their sales more than 50 % of costs), financial corporations (central bank – National Bank of Slovakia, commercial banks, saving and insurance companies, pension funds etc.), public administration (state administration, municipalities, social welfare funds – in SR also budgetary organisations, state purpose funds, National Property Fund, Land fund, Administration of state tangible reserves, district and city bureaus and contributory organisation, covering with their sales less than 50 % of costs), households (natural persons trading on a basis of Trade Certificate and other legal directions, not written in Commercial code, beneficiaries of pensions, persons living in collective devices, e.g. social devices, prisons etc.), non-profit institutions serving to households (associations, political parties, unions, foundations, humanitarian organisations etc). 2 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC In 1949-1960, Czechoslovakia was divided into 19 regions and 79 districts, whilst 6 regions were established in Slovakia. In 1961 former division was cancelled and three big regions (West-Slovak, Middle-Slovak, and East-Slovak) and 38 districts were established in Slovakia. Such division persisted with small changes till 1990. The bases of municipalities in new societal and political conditions were approved by an Act 369/1990 about municipality constitution. The first steps towards competence decentralisation from state administration to municipalities were provided already in 1992. The new regional division was applied in 1996. Self-government system was built up (in institutional side) in 2001 by approving an Act 302/2001 on higher territorial units. This Act created the second level of self-government administration and fulfilled a gap between elected parliament and elected representatives on
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Analysis of the System of Financing Local Public Investments in Slovak Rpublic
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local level. 8 self-governing regions were established on a basis of this Act. Creation of HTU (Higher Territorial Units) as well as transfer of some competences from state administration to municipalities is a result of an on-going decentralisation process. The aim of this process is to weaken centralised administration of public affairs and to strengthen the authority on both local and regional levels. Transfer of some competences from state administration (regional and district offices) on self-governments (local and regional level) was provided constantly from 2002 to 2004. The new system of financing of local and regional self-governments was also implemented in order to strengthen the financial independency of new territorial units. More than 400 competences from state administration to municipalities and HTU were transferred after ending up the whole decentralisation process. The aim was to increase the effectiveness and quality of state administration. Integrated regional and district bureaus were also cancelled. In Slovakia, there exists a so called parallel public administration model in which state administration is separated from public administration in full. Fig. 1 Adjustment of public administration in Slovak Republic since 1.1.2004 State administration
Local self-government
* Regional offices of general and specialised state administration
District offices of general and specialised state administration
Permanent and temporal bureaus
Municip.
Ministers, central offices
Region
State
Government
Regional administration – HTU
Cities / villages There is no superior/inferior relation between both levels of territorial administration
Source: Suhányi, 2011 * Regional offices existed from July 1996 to September 2007. Competences of the regional office were in the area of general internal administration, tradesmen, civil protection, and state management in crisis situations except of war. Regional offices also coordinated the activities of district offices (since 2007 county offices). Their competences were transferred on county offices, organs of self-government regions and municipalities. Specialised county state administration persisted till today. Nowadays, the system of public administration organs, its organisation structure, content and number of tasks determined to each of its units is a result of decentralised processes’ reform in public administration but also a result of the Slovak Republic EU and EMU accession, what obliges responsible public government representatives to implement many international standards in various areas of a societal life. The following Table shows the structure of public administration under the conditions of the Slovak Republic (SR).
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Tab. 1 Organisational structure of the public administration subjects in SR
Public administration
Central public administration
state administration central bodies, the head is a government member (ministers of finances, education, health-care, culture...) other state administration central bodies (such as Government department, Antitrust office, Statistic office) general local public administration bureaus (county bureaus)
Local public administration
specialised local public administration bureaus (land bureaus, forestry bureaus) local – municipalities
Local selfgovernment regional –higher territorial units Social welfare funds
funds made up by Social insurance company and Health-care companies within the health insurance
constituted by legal norm of different power (such as National Public corporaBank of Slovakia, Slovak Matica, ARDAL – Agency for tions credit and liquidity management ) Advisory bureaus
panel of the third sector, committees of the local/regional parliament, working groups ... Source: self elaboration
3 FINANCING LOCAL PUBLIC INVESTMENTS AND EFFICIENCY OF ABSORPTION OF EU STRUCTURAL AND COHESION FUNDS TILL 2011 The Local Self-Governments can use internal or external sources to finance their activities. Financial sources of Local Self-Governments are represented by: 1. own taxation revenues, 2. shared taxes (shares on centrally collected taxes), 3. own non-taxation revenues, 4. borrowed returnable revenues (e. g. bank loans), 5. borrowed non-returnable revenues (e. g. subsidies, EU funds). Local taxes and fees are divided in the Slovak Republic as follows: - local taxes (Municipalities): real estate tax o tax from lands o tax from buildings o tax from flats tax from dog tax from using of public site
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tax from accommodation tax from selling machines tax from non-winning playing machines tax from drive-in and stay of motor vehicle in the historical city centre tax from nuclear plant local fee for communal waste and small building wastes (Municipalities) tax from motor vehicles (Higher Territorial Units – HTU).
Income tax of natural persons is the only one shared tax in the Slovak Republic. Criteria and weights for the revenue distribution for municipalities and higher territorial units in the Slovak Republic are: • Municipalities: Number of citizens – weight 23 % Financial assurance of basic self-governing competences in the area of local public administration performance. Absolute revenue per municipality was corrected by coefficient of the sea level in a range of 57 % of criteria. The volume of revenue corrected by the sea-level factor reflects different energetic-intensive equipments. Number of citizens corrected by size coefficient – weight 32 % The aim is to respect increased need of financial sources for municipalities providing self-governing competences also for citizens of neighbour municipalities. Number of pupils (children, students) – weight 40 % Criterion secures sources for financing of educational competences. Coefficient corresponds to every relevant type of facility. Criterion directs financial sources to municipalities where these schools are located. Number of citizens over 62 years – weight 5 % Directing of sources to finance needs in the social area for the pensioners for whom municipality exercises competences. •
Higher territorial units: Number of citizens – weight 15 % Financial sources are directed towards fulfilment of basic self-governing competences of public administration in creation and fulfilment of social, economic, and cultural development of higher territorial unit. Number of citizens in age from 15 to 18 years – weight 15 % Directing of finances towards youth generation to allow high territorial units to fulfil competences in the area of secondary education, elementary art education, language schools, school dormitories, school meals equipments, school centres of technical practice, centres of school services, schools in nature, leisure time centres, and sparetime activity school centres.. Number of citizens over 62 years old – weight 32 % For an age group of citizens who are potential receivers of services of higher territorial unit self-governing competences in the area of social affairs within the social services’ facilities. Reversed density of citizens – weight 9 % Directing on public transportation provided in a public interest. Reversed density of citizens is used for calculation in order to reflect higher cost-intensity of public transportation in the areas of lower citizen concentration. The length of the II. and III. category roads – weight 20 % - 154 -
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Financial sources of shared taxes are directed towards coverage of needs connected with execution of ownership relations. Acreage of higher territorial unit – weight 9 % Criterion reflects the financial intensity of providing further unspecified original competences of each HTU from the view of territory acreage. Taxation offices are compulsory to make calculations of taxation revenues for each municipality and high territorial unit monthly. The Local Self-Government can also use the external sources coming from outside of the budget to finance its investments and activities. Examples of such sources are loans from commercial banks, European Investment Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and in the Slovak Republic also from the Slovak Guarantee and Development Bank, sources obtained from state budget, state funds and the EU funds. Self-Governments’ investment activities can be supported also through various subsidies, taxation discounts, or other protections. Regional development is mostly financed from several sources in the Slovak Republic: state budget, state funds, self-governing regions’ budgets, municipalities’ budgets, from sources of natural persons and corporations, from sources of public-private partnerships, from loans and contributions of the international organisations, and financial sources resulting from the international grant contracts between the Slovak Republic and other states. Sources of the Union funds and other Union financial tools are considered as additional source of financing and are directed to economically weakened regions or to regions with unfavourable structure. External financial sources of investments: - loans to support the region: o Slovak Guarantee and Development Bank o European Investment Bank o European Bank for Reconstruction and Development o loans from commercial banks - Investment and state aid (to regions, in which GDP per capita measured by purchasing power parity is less than 75% of EU-27 GDP average) o subsidies for long-term tangible and intangible property acquisition whereby contract between Ministry of Economy and approved receiver is signed. o income tax discounts for corporations according to special direction that receiver applies for annually by submitting the taxation statement if such discount was approved. o contribution for created labour places according to special direction on a basis of special contact between Headquarters of Labour, Social Affairs and Family and receiver to whom this aid was approved. o transfer of fixed assets or exchange of fixed assets for lower price like general property value is. - state aid to support: o regional economic development, o implementing of significant project of joint European interest or to correct serious economic failures, o development of certain economic activities or certain economic area, o culture and preservation of cultural heritage. - 155 -
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Support of the investment activities through EU funds. By the end of 2011, the Slovak Republic withdrew 2 695,47 mil. Euro out of total 11 498,33 mil. Euro for programming period 2007-2013. This sum represents withdrawal at 23,44%. Slovak Republic withdrew from 2008 commitment in a sense of n + 3 rule (1 448,23 mil. Euro) within the structural funds (except of Target 3 – Operational program European territorial cooperation SR-CR, Operational program Interact II and Operational program Fisheries that are administered separately) 100,00 % sources for the II. programming period and condition in a sense of n + 3 rule has been fulfilled for all OP NSRR at the national level. Operational programmes were withdrawing 2009 and 2010 commitments respectively. 2009 commitment was withdrawn in most of operational programmes in full, except of OP Research and Development withdrawn at 75,72 %, OP Education at 34,97 %, and OP Information Society at 3,98 %. Other operational programmes were withdrawn from 2010 commitment. Withdrawal from 2010 commitment for the Regional OP was at 100,00 %, for the OP Health Care at 100,00 %, for the OP Competitiveness and the Economic Growth at 82,95 %, for the OP Technical Support at 81,11 %, for the OP Transportation for Cohesion fund at 69,04 %, for the OP Transportation for ERDF at 32,35 %, for the OP Employment and Social Inclusion at 56,56 %, OP Life Environment for ERDF was withdrawn at 53,14 % and for CF at 12,09 %, and OP Bratislava region was withdrawn at 48,81 %. This paper was prepared with the support of the grant VEGA 1/0760/13.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] CLARK, J. J., Pritchard, R. E., Hindelang, T. J. (1989) Capital Budgeting: Planning and Control of capital Expenditure. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1989. ISBN 0-131-14877-X [2] OCHRANA, F. (2001) Veřejný sektor a efektivní rozhodování. Praha: Management Press, 2001. ISBN 80-7261-018-X [3] SUHÁNYI, L. (2011) Strategické investičné rozhodovanie na úrovni regiónu. Prešov: FM PU, 2011. 210p. ISBN 978-80-555-0312-7. [4] SUHÁNYIOVÁ, A. – ONDRIJOVÁ, I.: (2013) Finančná správa z organizačnoúzemného hľadiska. In: Verejná správa 7-8/2013. p. 36-40. ISSN 1337-0448. [5] SUHÁNYIOVÁ, A. – HORVÁTHOVÁ, J.- MOKRIŠOVÁ, M. – ONDRIJOVÁ, I.: (2013) Analytický pohľad na dane z príjmov zamestnancov. In: Verejná správa a spoločnosť 1/2013. p. 117-127. ISSN 1335-7182. [6] VALACH, J. (2006) Investiční rozhodování a dlouhodobé financování. 2nd ed. Praha: Ekopress, 2006. ISBN 80-86929-01-9 [7] Act no. 36/1960 on Territorial Division of the State [8] Act of the Slovak Republic no. 221/1996 on Territorial and Administrative Division of the Slovak Republic [9] Act of the Slovak Republic no. 231/1999 on State Aid [10] Act of the Slovak Republic no. 302/2001 on Self-Government of Higher Territorial Units (Law of Self-Government Regions) [11] Act of the Slovak Republic no. 416/2001 on transfer of some competencies from state administration to municipalities and higher territorial units (Competence Act) [12] Act of the Slovak Republic no. 503/2001 on Regional Development [13] Act of the Slovak Republic no. 523/2004 on Budgetary Rules and amending certain laws [14] Act of the Slovak Republic no. 539/2008 on Regional Development [15] Act of the Slovak Republic no. 561/2007 on Investment Aid [16] Act of the Slovak Republic no. 583/2004 on Budgetary Rules of Local SelfGovernment Regions [17] Principles of Regional Policy according to the resolution of the Slovak Government no. 235/98
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RECYCLING WASTEWATERS FROM ANIMAL FARMS Turc B., Petroman I., Petroman Cornelia, Lozici Ana, Marin Diana, Momir Bogdan Banat`s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara, Faculty of Agricultural Management Through the use of new wastewater treatment installations from livestock farms to reduce the level of pollution by substances that have harmful action on water quality and consequently on flora and fauna. Thus it appears that it is not threatened air quality around the wastewater treatment installations, treated water quality is good, for example BOD5 reaches 40 mg/l and the amount of O2 varies between 8-10mg/l, being a perfect environment for preserving biodiversity in the analyzed area. Keywords: wastewaters, farm, livestock, recycling INTRODUCTION To avoid the negative impact on the environment of wastewaters discharged from pig farms directly into emissaries, specialists have looked for modern solutions for the purification of wastewaters; the existing water plants try to avoid this inconvenient and contribute to the establishment of a proper ecological balance1,2,3. Water is considered as the "heart of the biosphere" because water is always where life exists and forms the most widespread substance on Earth. Pollutants (slurry) drainaged contribute greatly to reducing demanded quantity of dissolved oxygen. The amount of oxygen dissolved in the water, even in the normal decrease in proportion to the increase in temperature4. Oxygen in the water is a limiting factor in most organisms in both freshwater and marine waters. For this reason, aquatic animal need in a respiratory process of a high brachial movement, which ensures their contact with a large amount of water to extract a sufficient amount of oxygen. But, this, make possible increasing the risk of increasing amounts of pollutants absorption, often with deadly effects to aquatic organisms. Water pollution must be addressed by the rule, based on three categories of pollutants: physical, chemical and biological. 5. MATERIAL AND METHOD To avoid the impact of wastewaters from animal farms on the environment, discharged directly into emissaries, we designed a modern water plant that recycles wastewaters from 8,000 pigs using the existing buildings of the water plant and adding some new ones so that we supply water that does not pollute the emissaries during periods of low rainfall. Adapting such a water plant for wastewaters from the pig farm was done by adapting a project designed by the German firm Blanche und Sohne, farms where we carried analyses concerning the quality of wastewaters before and after cleaning through the German method. The old hydraulic equipments for the discharge of the wastes already existing in breeding and finishing pig farms were made up of the following elements: canals for the collection from shelters whose flooring was covered with grids allowing animal wastes to be 1
Barnea M., Papadopol C., - Poluarea şi protecţia mediului, Editura Tehnică şi Enciclopedică, Bucureşti 1975 Platon V., Protecţia mediului şi dezvoltarea economică, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1997 3 Moraru R., Evaluarea riscului ecologic, Editura Infomin, Deva, 2000 4 Vişan S. ş.a., Mediul inconjurător, poluare şi protecţie, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2000 5 Lixandru B., Petroman I., Elemente de ecologie factorială, Editura Mirton Timişoara 1995 2
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Recycling Wastewaters from Animal Farms
Turc B., Petroman I., Petroman Cornelia, Lozici Ana, Marin Diana, Momir Bogdan
removed, watering sources, outer canal networks collecting wastes and cleaning water, and the water plant. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Water plants separate the wastes from the water and purify the wastewaters before being discharged into the emissaries. The main issue of the farms before 1989 was the achievement of production plans completely ignoring the cleaning of wastewaters and the avoidance of impacting the environment; therefore, most water plants were not functional and wastewaters were discharged directly into the emissaries producing disbalance in the flora and fauna through pollution. Nowadays, given the measures taken, these farms can no longer operate without an environmental licence which enforces the purification of wastewaters, the avoidance of an impact on these biota, and the use of wastewaters in irrigation and the rough matter as manure to increase agricultural productions. This is why we modernised the existing water plants or built new ones to ensure proper recycling and aeration of wastewaters before being discharged, preventing pollution and contributing to a proper ecological balance. The water plants designed for pig farms are made of wastewater decantation basins, sludge fermentation basins to destroy bacteria and germs, pumping stations for the fermented wastes, drying platforms for solid wastes, biological ponds for the purification of the water, and pumping stations for the discharge of wastewaters into the emissaries.
COMPONENTS OF A WATER PLANT Decantation basins Fermentation basins Pumping stations for fermented wastes Drying platforms for solid wastes Biological ponds for the purification of the water Pumping stations for the discharge of the wastewaters into the emissaries
Figure 1. Main elements of a water plant Though the system of hydraulic discharge of wastewaters with water plants is the most convenient, it raises a series of problems, which deprives numerous units of operating licences and makes them pay fines or be closed); some of these problems are: - The amount of water necessary to wash away the wastes is very large and it has 7000-8000 mg/l CBO5 (biological consumption of oxygen in five days), which requires rich sources of water; - They need numerous equipments and installations for discharge and purification, which makes the investment costly; - They cannot ensure a proper cleansing of the wastewaters to avoid polluting the emissaries and producing ecological disbalance (their yield is 50-60%); - They require large areas of agricultural land; - Their location not adapted to local conditions causes waters to infiltrate underground waters and affect the sources of water for human consumers in the area.
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The water plant designed and built within the analysed farm contains the following wastewater and solid waste recycling stages: - Mechanical stage: wastewaters from the farm are pumped into the decantation beds where the preliminary separation of the rough matter takes place. These decantation beds take over the flow fluctuations caused by the discontinuous discharge of the water. Separating the liquid and the roughage is done through pumping on hydro sieves (0.5 mm). The roughage is carried by transporters to the storage platform. - Anaerobic stage: in this segment, there is a reduction of the content of CBO5 of about 60%, during a retention time of minimum 10 days: the presence of methane and the lack of oxygen destroy the germs and parasites. Methane gas is formed as a by-product, constituting an appreciable source of energy but, because of the high investment costs, the station has no equipment for the production of methane gas - Bioreactor: there are two stages here: • Pre-aeration, where water from the anaerobic phase mixes in a certain ratio with the water from the second phase containing active sludge. The increase of the amount of dissolved oxygen is due to the biochemical action of bacteria in the active sludge, which produce a simultaneous denitrification releasing oxygen. • Reduction of the content of organic matter in the oxidation trench, closure of the denitrification process and aeration of the trench with brush-type aerators. - Decantation: the sludge thus resulted is collected in an intermediary basin and flocculation is speeded up with addition of polyelectrolyte. The sedimented sludge is recirculated partially in the oxidation trench and excess sludge is carried to the storage platform. - Aerated pond: it has brush-type aerators that make supplementary aeration; the quality of the water in this stage is good enough to be recirculated to animal shelters kept on concrete flooring, for washing or for the water cushion in the canals, avoiding supplementary consumption of drinking water. - Pond for the storage of purified water: upon entering this pond, the water goes through a filter with pebble and sand that filters mechanically and biologically with the help of bacteria. The water thus resulted is within standards: quality tests include fish and plants that find the proper biota in this storage basin. - Basin for the storage of wastewater – platform for solid wastes: the rough matter resulted from the mechanical stage together with the sludge are stored for 6 months and then used as manure. The quality of the water from the water plant has the features showed in Table 1 below: Table 1 Quality of the water from the water plant CBO5 CCO NH4-N NO3-N NO2-N PO4-N pH O2 40 mg/l 98 mg/l 0.06 101 mg/l 4.2 mg/l 2.2 mg/l 6.90 8-10 mg/l mg/l Source: Our own data
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Recycling Wastewaters from Animal Farms
Turc B., Petroman I., Petroman Cornelia, Lozici Ana, Marin Diana, Momir Bogdan
120 101
98
100 80 60 40 40 20
4,2
2,2
NO2-N
PO4-N
0,06
6,9
9
pH
O2
0 CBO5
CCO
NH4-N
NO3-N
Figure 2. Mean values of the water from the water plant Using this type of wastewater cleansing shows the following: - The quality of the air around the water plant is not endangered; - The waterproof treatment basins prevents soil and subsoil from being polluted; - The quality of the purified water is good; - The human settlements are not in any kind of danger because of the farm being located 1.2 km far from the first settlement; - There is no more pollution of the emissaries with negative effects on fish farming. We can draw the conclusion that the model proposed can be implemented in any pig farm, thus contributing to the effective management of wastes with no polluting effect whatsoever on the environment, because: - Due to the changes proposed and that were implemented, we can improve the proper functioning of the existing water plants with the resulting water proper for vegetal and animal life; - Due to its quality (CBO5 40 mg/l, CCO 98 mg/l, pH 7, O2 8-10 mg/l ), the resulting water can be discharged into the emissaries when they have proper flows or used in irrigation without damaging the ecological balance; - The rough matter resulted from the mechanical stage together with the sludge from the decantation of the wastes after a storage of minimum 6 months, can be used without any restriction as manure to increase vegetal productions if applied at rates of 20-25 t/ha in the analysed area; - The non-release in the atmosphere of substances that endanger air quality and soil quality due to the treatment basin insulation will contribute to the recovery of the ecosystem around the pig farm; - Using liquid wastes directly and rationally after collection as manure will not have a negative effect on soil quality and underground water quality because of nitrites and nitrates; - The solid fraction resulted from the mechanical stage together with the decantation sludge can be composted and, after a period of minimum 6 months, can be used as manure to increase agricultural productions. CONCLUSIONS In order to improve the performances of water plants, we need to build a biogas station to produce energy for the heating of the nurseries and shelters and a composting station for the roughage because the farm only has 28 ha of agricultural land and the manure produced is too much a fertiliser. Thus, is why the farm has signed contracts with landowners in the area and fertilises their lands with liquid manure applied directly on the soil after collecting under the surveillance of the Environmental Agency.
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Tudományos Mozaik 10.
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1. Barnea M., Papadopol C., - Poluarea şi protecţia mediului, Editura Tehnică şi Enciclopedică, Bucureşti 1975 2. Lixandru B., Petroman I., Elemente de ecologie factorială, Editura Mirton Timişoara 1995 3. Moraru R., Evaluarea riscului ecologic, Editura Infomin, Deva, 2000 4. Platon V., Protecţia mediului şi dezvoltarea economică, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1997 5. Vişan S. ş.a., Mediul inconjurător, poluare şi protecţie, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2000
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EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS IN AREAS FERTILISED WITH WASTES FROM PIG FARMS Petroman Cornelia, Lozici Ana, Ispravnic Liana, Petroman I., Marin Diana, Ciolac Ramona, Vaduva Loredana Banat`s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara, Faculty of Agricultural Management The research aimed to analyze the characteristics of deep-water quality through organoleptic and physico-chemical indicators, in the impact area of the analyzed farm. PH values of deep waters have increased values, but do not exceed 6.5 to 7.4. In the samples taken from deep waters was found variations in water color, these analyzed samples exceeding 2 degrees. Keywords: underground waters, fertilised areas, wastes, swine INTRODUCTION The (ecological, life) environment represents the totality of the physical, chemical, meteorological, and biological factors in a given place a body comes into contact with. These factors are temperature, humidity, soil, water, terrestrial magnetism, landscape, and other bodies. Between each body and the environment, there are complex mutual influences. The environment influences the bodies, but the bodies (including man) also alter the environment. Body adaptation to the environment is limited1. There are, between the ecological communities of a biota, relationships of ecological balance. This balance can be altered under the action of natural or artificial factors. Natural factors are either physiographic, or biotic, and they impact the evolution of ecological communities, making up “successive communities” (the so-called greenhouses) that usually produce a major climax community2,3. When man interferes with the ecosystems’ evolution, it occurs in subgreenhouses or secondary greenhouses, and the major community is a disclimax one. Man’s intervention usually takes place through the alteration of the local factors, particularly air, water, and soil. The main damaging action of humans on their environment is pollution4. MATERIAL AND METHOD The analysis of the drinkability indicators was carried out on monthly samples over one year and from 3 drills in the service area of a pig farm (SC AGROSAS SRL, Gătaia, Timiş County); the farm has agricultural land (200 ha) which is fertilised with primarily processed wastes (mechanical separation with hydro sieves) that are incorporated into the soil with specific equipment. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Storing and spreading in the field wastes from pig farms is associated with foulsmelling (ammonia) gas emissions and soil and water pollution. Animal wastes are excellent fertilisers due to their content rich in nutritious organic matter. 1
Lixandru B., Petroman I., Elemente de ecologie factorială, Editura Mirton Timişoara 1995 Platon V., Protecţia mediului şi dezvoltarea economică, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1997 3 Popescu G., Dobre B., Protecţia civilă şi managementul dezastrelor, Editura Fundaţiei „România de mâine”, Bucureşti, 2000 4 Moraru R., Evaluarea riscului ecologic, Editura Infomin, Deva, 2000 2
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Effective Management of Underground Waters in Areas Fertilised with Wasters from Pig Farms
Petroman Cornelia, Lozici Ana, Ispravnic Liana, Petroman I., Marin Diana, Ciolac Ramona, Vaduva Loredana
The taste and smell of the water from the studied sources – relatively large deep drills (220 m) – have normal values below maximum admitted limits, which shows that these waters are almost tasteless (their taste is slightly altered) but the smell is within Romanian standards of drinkability. Colour shades have a wide variation specific to each drill: there are variations of over 2 degrees from on drill to another depending on soil fertilisation period. In all the samples we analysed from the three drills, there were high values of hydrogen ion concentration that are not above the limit of 6.5-7.4. The concentration of hydrogen ions in the water (pH) has a slight fluctuation between 7.3 and 7.4 degrees, which corresponds totally to the maximum admitted limits. Though there are different opinions concerning the advantages and disadvantages of finishing swine in shelters with grids over hydric collection canals of pig wastes, choosing the management system and the removal of waste from the shelters without damaging the soil and underground waters is determined mainly by the duration and place of storage as well as by the waste spreading method. Storing and spreading over agricultural lands of liquid wastes from pig farms is associated with gas emission (particularly ammonia) and it can, after a long period of improper use, have negative impacts on the soil and underground waters. While drinkable water reserves are increasingly limited worldwide also because of the improper use of wastes from pig farms, we need to monitor more strictly the quality of the water at local level through an integrated monitoring system per fund and impact areas. According to the impact study carried out in the analysed area, the global pollution index was Ipg=5.34, which shows that the environment is affected by human activities producing disorder in life forms. Compared to the global pollution index (Ipg=1) indicating no pollution on a scale between 1 and 10, in the area we analysed it was Ip (water)=3, Ip (air)=8.5, Ip (soil)=2.5, which determined the reduction of the activities on the farm. The same results were found by Lixandru B. et al. in 2000, while studying the drinkability of underground waters in NW Timiş County, in the area of the COMTIM farms. Data presented in Table 1 show that, as far as taste is concerned, the values are between 0 and 1, which means that the water has a slightly altered taste (drills 1 and 3). Table 1 Taste values in the waters from the three deep drills Values (in grades) Sampling Admitted values S 1342/1991 month (grades) F1 F2 F3 I 1 0 1 max.2 II 1 0 1 max.2 III 1 0 1 max.2 IV 1 0 1 max.2 V 1 0 1 max.2 VI 1 0 1 max.2 VII 1 0 1 max.2 VIII 1 0 1 max.2 IX 1 0 1 max.2 X 1 0 1 max.2 XI 1 1 1 max.2 XII 1 1 1 max.2 Source: Our own data Smell analysis of the waters from the three drills range between 0 and 2, at the maximum admitted limit for drinkability standards as shown in Table 2 over a study period of one year. - 166 -
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Sampling month
Smell values in the waters from the three deep drills Values (in grades) Admitted values S 1342/1991 (grades)
F1 F2 I 1 0 II 1 0 III 2 0 IV 2 0 V 2 0 VI 2 0 VII 2 0 VIII 2 0 IX 2 0 X 2 0 XI 2 0 XII 2 0 Source: Our own data
F3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
max.2 max.2 max.2 max.2 max.2 max.2 max.2 max.2 max.2 max.2 max.2 max.2
Colour values in the water from the deep-water sources are shown in Table 3. Table 3 Colour values in the waters from the three deep drills Values (in grades) Sampling Admitted values S 1342/1991 month (grades) F1 F2 F3 I 5 6 7 max.15 II 6 6 7 max.15 III 6 6 7 max.15 IV 6 7 7 max.15 V 5 7 7 max.15 VI 4 6 7 max.15 VII 4 5 6 max.15 VIII 4 7 6 max.15 IX 3 7 6 max.15 X 4 7 7 max.15 XI 4 7 7 max.15 XII 5 7 7 max.15 Source: Our own data There is variation of watercolour in the samples collected monthly from each drill and between drills, but they were not above the 2 normal degrees. Colour was 5-7 times more intense in the fodders 2 and 3, where there was colour alteration. The concentration of hydrogen ions in the water (pH) ranged between maximum admitted limits (7.30-7.40) (Table 4).
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Effective Management of Underground Waters in Areas Fertilised with Wasters from Pig Farms
Petroman Cornelia, Lozici Ana, Ispravnic Liana, Petroman I., Marin Diana, Ciolac Ramona, Vaduva Loredana
Table 4 Hydrogen ion concentration values in the waters from the three deep drills Sampling Values (in grades) Admitted values month F1 F2 F3 I 7.4 7.3 7.3 6.5-7.4 II 7.4 7.3 7.3 6.5-7.4 III 7.4 7.4 7.3 6.5-7.4 IV 7.4 7.4 7.3 6.5-7.4 V 7.3 7.4 7.3 6.5-7.4 VI 7.3 7.4 7.4 6.5-7.4 VII 7.3 7.3 7.4 6.5-7.4 VIII 7.4 7.3 7.4 6.5-7.4 IX 7.4 7.3 7.4 6.5-7.4 X 7.4 7.3 7.4 6.5-7.4 XI 7.4 7.4 7.4 6.5-7.4 XII 7.4 7.4 7.4 6.5-7.4 Valori determinate F1
Valori determinate F2
Valori determinate F3
7,42 7,4 7,38 7,36 7,34 7,32 7,3 7,28 7,26 7,24 I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
Figure 1. Hydrogen ion concentration values in the waters from the three deep drills CONCLUSIONS Analysis carried out shows that, as far as drinkability standards in Romania are concerned: - the smell values of the waters from underground sources range at the maximum admitted limits; - the taste values of the waters from underground sources range right below the maximum admitted limits (0-1 grades), slightly altered; - the colour values of the waters from underground sources have variations, which is normal since the differences between the samples collected from the same spot were not above 2 grades, while in other sources (drills 2 and 3) there was colour alteration; - hydrogen ion concentration (pH) from underground sources ranges right below the maximum admitted limits (7.3-7.4), without going above exceptional limits. If liquid wastes are spread rationally, in a controlled manner, and proper animal load per ha is observed, natural animal manure is beneficial and leads to an increase of the yield without negative effects on underground water sources.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Lixandru B., Petroman I., Elemente de ecologie factorială, Editura Mirton Timişoara 1995 2. Moraru R., Evaluarea riscului ecologic, Editura Infomin, Deva, 2000 3. Platon V., Protecţia mediului şi dezvoltarea economică, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1997 4. Popescu G., Dobre B., Protecţia civilă şi managementul dezastrelor, Editura Fundaţiei „România de mâine”, Bucureşti, 2000
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QUALITY OF WASTEWATERS FROM ANIMAL FARMS WHEN RELEASED FROM WATER PLANTS Caprar D., Petroman Cornelia, Ispravnic Liana, Petroman I., Marin Diana, Ciolac Ramona, Chirila Cosmina Banat`s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara, Faculty of Agricultural Management Monitoring the quality of wastewaters relies on primary data from the laboratories of APMs and of economic agents that own such laboratories or that monitors environmental factors and send on a periodical basis analyses results to APMs. Keywords: wastewaters, farms, animals, Arad County, Caraș-Severin County INTRODUCTION Pollution can be defined as “any introduction by man in the environment, directly or indirectly, of substances or energies with damaging effects, capable of endangering human health, to affect biological resources, ecosystems and material ownership, to diminish or hinder other legal usages of the environment”1. Thus, pollution can be: - Artificial. Initially, pollutants had an organic nature or bacteria and fungi easily degraded them. With industrial development and demographic outburst, nonbiodegradable wastes occurred that no enzyme could decompose. Then, depending on the nature of the pollutant, artificial pollution can be: • Physical, produced by: o noise (sound pollution); o radioactive substances (radioactive pollution) ; o hot water, dust, coal particles, etc.; • chemical, produced by: o gas compounds from industry, agriculture, etc.; o heavy metals ions; o detergents and disinfectants; o pesticides; • biological, produced by: o environmental infestation by pathogens and germs from fermentation; o water eutrophication. - Natural. It plays a secondary role since anthropic contribution is increasingly severe. It is produced by: • Volcanic eruptions releasing gases, vapours, solid matter particles that are carried away at long distances by the wind and air currents, with limited results in the research area; • Soil erosion – caused by the winds or by water – more intense when the soil is plantless, sloped or in an area rich in surface waters. Vegetal and animal residues release, after decomposition, polluting gas substances2,3. Pollen or fungi can be natural aerosols and have a negative impact on human health (e.g., Ambrosia as an invasive plant in Western Romania).
1
Barnea M., Papadopol C., - Poluarea şi protecţia mediului, Editura Tehnică şi Enciclopedică, Bucureşti 1975 Platon V., Protecţia mediului şi dezvoltarea economică, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1997 3 Vişan S. ş.a., Mediul inconjurător, poluare şi protecţie, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2000 2
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Quality of Wastewaters from Animal Farms Caprar D., Petroman Cornelia, Ispravnic Liana, when Released from Water Plants Petroman I., Marin Diana, Ciolac Ramona, Chirila Cosmina
The volumes of pollutants that aggress the environment and pollution intensity are directly proportional with human demographics and with human requirements – some of which are maintained artificially. Pollution increases exponentially, with new pollutants occurring because of their conjugated effect4. MATERIAL AND METHOD Data processing showed values above maximum admitted limits particularly in wastewaters from farm animals whose water plants are physically and morally outdated. The result is that the resulting waters are improperly purified. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results show pollution concentrations above maximum admitted limits in the wastewaters we analysed (according to the NTPA-001 – concerning the loading limits for pollutants of wastewaters – and to NTPA-002 – concerning the loading limits for released wastewaters). ARAD COUNTY We analysed the wastewaters from several water plants (being monitored by the Arad SGA) located in the counties of Arad and Timiş that pour into natural emissaries. We could see that, in the Pecica area, on the Mureş River, NH4 levels are above maximum admitted limits because of the improperly purified solid wastes from the Agropork Iratoş pig farm, a farm that owns a mechanical water plant with hydro sieves that separate solid matter from liquid matter: unfortunately, the farm stores the liquid in decantation basins that are not waterproof and do not allow the overflow to get into the emissary through a desiccation pipe. Because of the low rainfall level in 2010, and of improper dilution, the level of NH4 was above maximum admitted limits in the Hathaz Canal. The same happened on the Mureşul Mort River, at Cenad, where NH4 levels, as well as CBO5, levels and detergent levels were above maximum admitted limits. In the area, there is a small pig farm and an industrial processor, but the Environment Agency could not identify the polluter and neither did it fine anybody. The most alarming situation was at the Macea Farm of the Agri-Industrial Complex in Curtici, where all indicators of water quality had values above maximum admitted limits: CBO5, NH4, total P, NO2, and NO3. Wastes from the water plants were discharged into an irrigation canal, which had a negative impact on water sources. To prevent such future events, the pig farm is building a modern water plant and is replacing the technology of waste collection and removal. CARAŞ-SEVERIN COUNTY Results show pollution concentrations above maximum admitted limits in the wastewaters we analysed (according to the NTPA-001 – concerning the loading limits for pollutants of wastewaters – and to NTPA-002 – concerning the loading limits for released wastewaters), as shown in the tables below. Data analysis shows that in the Caraş-Severin County, poultry and pig farm activities do not pollute the environment severely. The highest animal concentration is in the Bocşa area, where there are three large farms. Waters from the water plant of the SC Food SRL farm are discharges into the Bârzava River, producing NH4 and CBO5 values above maximum admitted limits only in March 2010, when the farm was depopulated: this needed larger amount of water and disinfectants to prepare the shelters for repopulation.
4
Petroman I., Culea C., Sisteme de creştere şi exploatare a animalelor , Editura Mirton, Timişoara, 1998
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SC AgroBanat also, whose main objective is raising poultry, discharged partially purified wastewaters into the Bârzava River, which produced values of NH4 and CBO5. above maximum admitted limits. The Collini pig farm, a small farm that finishes pigs (5,216 heads) uses a performing technology: it produced no pollution because it does not separate solid from liquid matters, but uses liquid animal wastes to fertilise the soil. Taking into account these aspects and the small concentration of pigs in small pig farms, the degree of pollution of the waters and the quality of the wastewaters in the CaraşSeverin County do not ask for urgent measures to be taken. These farms have different exploitation technologies: the former did not modernise its technological flow, which caused NH4, CBO5, CCOcr and NH2 levels above maximum admitted limits in wastewaters discharged into emissaries; the latter, completely modernised, meets quality standards and pollutes only accidentally with NH4 from the water plant of the pig farm on the Cerna River. CONCLUSIONS The quality of the waters monitored systematically has periodic fluctuations because of the wastewaters that are improperly purified and that are discharged improperly by certain economic agents because of the technical state of the current water plants or because of the lack of such water plants. We need to re-technologise and complete all water plants of the animal farms because all of them cause, more or less, pollutant levels above, or close to, the maximum admitted limits.
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Quality of Wastewaters from Animal Farms Caprar D., Petroman Cornelia, Ispravnic Liana, when Released from Water Plants Petroman I., Marin Diana, Ciolac Ramona, Chirila Cosmina
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1
Barnea M., Papadopol C., - Poluarea şi protecţia mediului, Editura Tehnică şi Enciclopedică, Bucureşti 1975
2
Petroman I., Culea C., Sisteme de creştere şi exploatare a animalelor , Editura Mirton, Timişoara, 1998
3
Platon V., Protecţia mediului şi dezvoltarea economică, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1997
4
Vişan S. ş.a., Mediul inconjurător, poluare şi protecţie, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2000
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ASPECTS OF INTENSIVE BREEDING TECHNOLOGIES IN REPRODUCTION CHICKENS FOR CONSUMPTION EGG PRODUCTION Fraiu Gianina, Petroman I., Benk A., Petroman Cornelia, Marin Diana, Serban Victoria, Turc Bogdan Banat`s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara, Faculty of Agricultural Management Regardless of the growth intensive technology, feed has an important role in the production of eggs obtained from fed hens as well as the quality of the eggs produced. Feeding ad libidum with rich forage and corn flour determine obteining dark eggs and weighing between 175-180 g/egg. Even if the feeding is done at discretion specific consumption does not exceed 114g/day/hens. Keywords: technology, chickens, reproduction, eggs, intensive breeding Introduction The socio-economic importance of breeding poultry (for poultry, eggs, and secondary products) is obvious in the food pyramids developed over the years, pyramids in which poultry and eggs are almost invariably on top because they are among the main sources of animal proteins recommended in healthy nutrition1. Nutrition is the most suggestive indicator of living standards in a certain area and this is why producing foods from poultry has become a first-rate permanent necessity if we take into account the biological superiority of the proteins they contain2. Then there is also the economic importance of breeding domestic fowls whose main productions – meat and eggs – share more and more of the necessary proteins in human foods3. Chicken eggs are considered complex foods due to the nutritious principles they contain4: - They can assure the vital needs of the embryo in its development up to hatching: egg proteins are considered a standard since they contain all the amino acids necessary to life in the best ratios and without limiting factors – they have a biological value superior to other foods (94-97% compared to 82% in milk, 74% in meat, 62% in cereals); - Poultry is noted for its taste and dietetic features, high digestibility, high content of proteins, and low content of lipids5. Material and Method In order to carry out our scientific research, we carried out a comparative study of different breeding technologies in chicken for egg production aiming at identifying the best solutions. Results and Discussion The intensive breeding technology in reproduction chickens for consumption egg production is practiced in hybrids marketed currently; it is based on the principle of total
1
Petroman I., Culea C., (1998) Sisteme de creştere şi exploatare a animalelor , Editura Mirton, Timişoara Roşu, Maria. (1983). Tehnologia creşterii şi exploatării păsărilor 3 Dinea Mariana, Suciu I., 2004, Tehnologia creșterii păsărilor, Editura Risoprint Cluj-Napoca 4 Vacaru-Opriş, I., Sandu, Gh., Mateescu, Virginia, Ţârlea, S., Chelmu, S. S., Van, I., Movileanu, G., Muscalu, Gr., Pricop, F. & Mihailov, M. (1999). Tratat de avicultură I. Bucureşti: Editura Ceres. 5 Petroman Cornelia, 2010, Procesarea materiilor prime agricole, Editura Eurostampa, Timișoara 2
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population and depopulation, with each firm producing genetic material recommending its own technology. To breed chicks and young chickens necessary to replace old laying hens and breed adult chickens, the ratio between the breeding areas and the finishing areas should be 1: 1 and follow the pattern shown in Table 1 below. Table 1 The chicks – young chickens – adult chickens’ circuit Cycle phases Duration (weeks) Breeding chicks and young chickens 22 20 20 Depopulating and populating 2 4 3 Total 24 24 42 Finishing adult chickens 44 44 42 Depopulating and populating 4 4 4 Total 48 48 46 Age of adult chickens upon depopulating 66 64 62 Age of young chickens upon populating 22 20 20 Duration of finishing 44 44 42 Source: After different authors The technology is based on a scheme of finishing flow over a period of 96 days as shown in Table 2 below. Table 2 Scheme of finishing laying hens for consumption egg production flow over a period of 96 days Unit Series Duration (weeks) Breeding chicks and young 1 24 (23) chickens 2 24 (23) 3 24 (23) 4 24 (23) Finishing adult chickens 1 1 48 (46) 2 48 (46) Finishing adult chickens 2 3 48 (46) 4 48 (46) Source: After different authors 77 weeks of age and at a weight of 1,800 g (white hybrid) and 2,500 g (red hybrid), we need to depopulate and send the entire lots of poultry to slaughtering. The poultry are kept in one-storey building in which: - Each sector has a sanitary filter preventing free circulation from one sector to another; - Light is managed artificially (depending on the biological reproduction requirements of the poultry); - Microclimate is ensured with mechanical fans with adaptable flow and four aerothermals; - There are no windows (the so-called “blind” shelters). The breeding technology in reproduction chickens for consumption egg production on permanent layer is based on a technological flow consisting of populating the shelter with young chickens (6 females/m2, i.e. 1,000 females per compartment in 6-compartment shelters, and 750 females per compartment in 8-compartment shelters) in 2-3 days and depopulating the shelter through the transfer of chickens to slaughtering units: - 176 -
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in the first week, we need to proceed with: • depopulating; • removing the layer, the equipment, and the furniture; • carrying out the first disinfection with a solution of caustic soda (2-3%); - in the second week, we need to proceed with: • washing the equipment and the furniture; • disinfecting the shelter and the furniture by sterilising in flames; • repairing; • white washing; • deratisation; • bringing in the new layer; • disinfecting again by fumigation with formol vapours; - in the third week, we need to proceed with closing the shelter (sanitary void) until depopulating. The shelter needs to meet the following conditions: - have a temperature of 13-240C no matter the season; - be lighted for 14-15 hours/day during the egg laying peak (27-32 weeks), depending on the chicken breed. The risks of not observing these parameters are that low or high temperatures cause a decrease of the egg production and an increase of the specific consumption. The breeding technology in reproduction chickens for consumption egg production on grids or nets is based on a technological flow consisting of populating the shelter with young chickens (8-9 females /m2) in 2-3 days and depopulating the shelter through the transfer of chickens to slaughtering units - in the first week, we need to proceed with: • depopulating; • removing the layer, the equipment, and the furniture; • carrying out the first disinfection with a solution of caustic soda (2-3%); - in the second week, we need to proceed with: • washing the equipment and the furniture; • disinfecting the shelter and the furniture by sterilising in flames; • repairing; • white washing; • bringing in the new furniture; • deratisation; • bringing in the new layer; • disinfecting again by fumigation with formol vapours; - in the third week, we need to proceed with closing the shelter (sanitary void) until re-populating. The shelter needs to meet the following conditions: - have a temperature of 13-240C no matter the season; - be lighted for 14-15 hours/day during the egg laying peak (27-32 weeks), depending on the chicken breed. The risks of not observing these parameters are that low or high temperatures cause a decrease of the egg production and an increase of the specific consumption. Chickens should be fed ad libitum with a specific premix to avoid the syndrome “of fatigue” (specific of battery keeping). The breeding technology in reproduction chickens for consumption egg production in batteries is based on a technological flow consisting of populating the shelter with
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young chickens (4 females/cage, i.e. 400 cm2/female, a feeding front of 10 cm/female and 812 females/waterer) in 2-3 days and depopulating the shelter through the transfer of chickens to slaughtering units: - in the first week, we need to proceed with: • depopulating; • removing the layer, the equipment, and the furniture; • carrying out the first disinfection with a solution of caustic soda (2-3%); - in the second week, we need to proceed with: • washing the equipment and the furniture; • disinfecting the shelter and the furniture by sterilising in flames; • repairing; • white washing; • bringing in the new furniture; • deratisation; • bringing in the new layer; • disinfecting again by fumigation with formol vapours; - in the third week, we need to proceed with closing the shelter (sanitary void) until re-populating. The shelter needs to meet the following conditions: - have a temperature of 13-240C no matter the season; - be lighted for 14-15 hours/day during the egg laying peak (27-32 weeks), depending on the chicken breed. The risks of not observing these parameters are that low or high temperatures cause a decrease of the egg production and an increase of the specific consumption. It is important that, once the chickens are introduced in the cage, the poultry should not be moved to another cage until the end of the production cycle. Chickens should be fed ad libitum with feed containing more protein (18%) and with a lower energetic value. Conclusions When breeding the chicken on permanent layer, they need to be fed ad libitum with feed that ensure the colour of the yoke (alfalfa meal, maize meal), with a mean consumption of 114 g in white hybrids (specific consumption for a production of 260-270 eggs being of 175-180 g/egg) and 130 g in red hybrids. When the chickens are bred for consumption eggs on grids or nets, then eggs should be collected every hour (to avoid cracking), then pre-sorted, disinfected with formol vapours, set in casings and delivered.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Dinea Mariana, Suciu I., 2004, Tehnologia creșterii păsărilor, Editura Risoprint ClujNapoca 2. Petroman Cornelia, 2010, Procesarea materiilor prime agricole, Editura Eurostampa, Timișoara 3. Petroman I., Culea C., (1998) Sisteme de creştere şi exploatare a animalelor , Editura Mirton, Timişoara Punda, Inna. (2010). Poultry Meat & Eggs: Agribusiness Handbook. Rome: FAO. 4. Roşu, Maria. (1983). Tehnologia creşterii şi exploatării păsărilor 5. Vacaru-Opriş, I., Sandu, Gh., Mateescu, Virginia, Ţârlea, S., Chelmu, S. S., Van, I., Movileanu, G., Muscalu, Gr., Pricop, F. & Mihailov, M. (1999). Tratat de avicultură I. Bucureşti: Editura Ceres.
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MOTIVES FOR TAKING UP VOLUNTEERING WORK BY YOUTHS Young people’s motivation for undertaking voluntary work dr inż. Iwona Gawron, mgr Joanna Marcisz Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa w Nowym Sączu, Instytut Ekonomiczny Volunteering is considered as a specific type of work based on undertaking an altruistic activity or service that involves conscious engagement in carrying out various. The most important feature of volunteering that makes it different from other types of vocational activities is inability to use the typical motivational factor at work that is the salary. Although financial incentives continue to play the most important role in motivating contemporary employees, volunteers themselves find the source of their personal motivation beyond financial gains. This paper presents the selected issues of motivation in the voluntary work undertaken by young people. Apart from the theoretical aspects concerning motivation of young people, the study presents empirical evidence related to the topic and based on the author’s own research. Introduction Nowadays, besides material resources in organisation, increasingly more attention is paid to human resources. It is a resource that is difficult to copy, so investment into the human capital, skilful motivation of employees to a more effective and efficient work seems to be purposeful. Management theoreticians and practitioners propose a wide spectrum of solutions for the creation, maintenance and direction of motivation as well as commitment of employees in an enterprise. The employees perform such actions which will result in higher remuneration. However, one must mention the higher-level motivating factors, such as the opportunity to develop, mastering good rapport, recognition, satisfaction, etc. 1. The concept and essence of motivation Discussing the essence and meaning of motivation, one must explain the terms, which are inseparably linked to the concept of motivation and motivating, namely the motive, incentive and the need. According to D. Kopycińska, a motive means the reasons for which the human behaves in a given manner.1 Motivation is the source and controller of our behaviours. It is a certain kind of process occurring in human consciousness (or rather subconsciousness), which leads to the desire to do something. This desire is termed as “motive”, “incentive” or “motivational tension”. Motive appears when a person realises an unfulfilled desire and expresses his/her readiness to take action in order to satisfy it.2 While the term ‘incentive’ refers to such environmental aspect surrounding the human which leads to his/her engagement in the fulfilment of specific targets. Therefore, they evoke motives. Incentives come from the surrounding; they are external to the subject of action.3 All human activities are related to the emergence of needs and the striving to satisfy them. The Nowa Encyklopedia Powszechna states that “a need is a state of not having something felt by animals and humans. This “something” - due to the structure of the organism, individual experience of the entity and its social place, is necessary for keeping the entity alive, allowing the entity to develop, maintain the 1
2
3
Mikuła B., Wybrane teorie motywacji, (w:) Zachowania organizacyjne. Wybrane zagadnienia, Collective work, ed. A. Potockiego, Wydawnictwo Difin, Warszawa 2005, p. 247. Kopertyńska M.W., Motywowanie pracowników. Teoria i praktyka, Wydawnictwo Placet, Warszawa 2009, p. 14. Sikorski Cz., Motywacja jako wymiana – modele relacji między pracownikiem a organizacją, Wydawnictwo Difin, Warszawa 2004, p. 12.
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species, keep a specific social role, maintain the belonging to a social group, etc. Moreover, it is a factor that launches the function of the motive for action towards a change of this state, namely towards the satisfaction of the need.”4 Analysing the issue of motivation in the context of the work performed, W. Kozłowski pays attention to the terms strictly connected to it, namely the motive, motivation, motivating, motivational process and motivational system. Table 1 includes the characteristics of concepts related to the term ‘motivation’. Table 1. Main concepts related to the term ‘motivation’ The notion of risk Motive
Motivation
Motivating
Motivational process Motivational system
Characteristics The psychic state of a human being is caused by an incentive, which is expressed in his/her striving, aspirations and personal needs It means every influence that excites, specifies and determines the behaviour of a human being. Motivation is the inner power residing in every human being, which - if stimulated by suitable incentives - evokes a given behaviour in a human being It is about influencing the human being and his/her behaviour by means of specified incentives, which are then transferred into motives and initiate a given action. It consists in influencing the employee in various manners, so that his/her behaviour is adequate to the will of the directing person. A system of specific tools and motivational means that aim to influence a worker, created by a given company.
Source: Kozłowski W., Zarządzanie motywacją pracowników, Wydawnictwo CeDeWu, Warszawa 2009, p. 14.
Motivation is the term defined in many ways and there is no clear and precise definition. The term “motivation”, as defined by W. Łukaszewski, „is used in psychology to describe all the mechanisms that are responsible for the activation, maintenance and completion of a behaviour patter”.5 On the other hand, M. Armstrong states that motivation deals with factors which influence people and make them behave in a specific manner. Motivation is characterised by three factors6: 1) direction - what a given person strives to do, 2) effort - how much a person strives, 3) persistence - how long a person makes an effort. Motivating can be considered in two aspects:7 1) the attribute-related aspect – which takes into consideration the state and external strength of the entity, influencing the behaviour of human beings; therefore, decisions on undertaking or resigning from activities are related to the personality and spirituality of the employee; 2) the activity-related aspect – consists in the suitably strong influence on the behaviour of humans and their persistence in time by means of suitably selected incentives.
4
Nowa Encyklopedia Powszechna, volume 5, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 1996, p. 279. Łukaszewski W., Motywacja w najważniejszych systemach teoretycznych, (w:), Psychologia ogólna, Collective work, ed. Strelau J., Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Gdańsk 2000, p. 427. 6 Armstrong M., Zarządzanie zasobami ludzkimi, Oficyna Ekonomiczna Kraków 2005, p. 210. 7 Sekuła Z., Motywowanie do pracy. Teoria i instrumenty, Wydawnictwo PWE, Warszawa 2008, p. 10. 5
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The internal and external factors mentioned above are interconnected and interact with one another. In such a way they mutually interact with human behaviours, which may be presented in the form of a process. The Figure 1 presents the motivational process. Figure 1. Basic motivational process Waiting status Needs of needs or the feeling
Possibility of needs satisfaction
Selection of target behaviours
Need satisfaction assessment
Prizes and penalties
Actions and their effects
Source: Pocztowski A. Zarządzanie zasobami ludzkimi, PWE, Warszawa 2007, p. 203. 2. Characteristics of selected motivational theories in the context of the volunteer’s work Here, it is worthwhile to focus more attention on the specific nature of the volunteering work, which is different from pursuing a professional career. The practice of the activities of non-governmental organisations stabilised the following definition of volunteering work, which precisely reflects its nature, by describing it as “free-of-charge, conscious, voluntary activity for the benefit of others, exceeding the family-colleague-friend bonds. Everyone can become a volunteer, in every area of social life, everywhere where people need help”.8 This type of work is related to the lack of possibility to use motivation in terms of remuneration, because it is not compliant to the idea of a volunteering work. The financial aspect was also stressed in the Act of 24 April 2003 on Public Benefit and Volunteer Work, according to which “a volunteer is every natural person who voluntarily and without remuneration performs services on the principles set forth in the act, to the benefits of specific organisations and institutions”.9 The term “without remuneration” should not however be associated with disinterestedness, but with the fact of not collecting material remuneration for one’s work. In fact the volunteer receives for the works rendered a remuneration of immaterial nature. The volunteers themselves underline that they receive “something” in exchange for their work, even though this “something” cannot always be named or described in detail.10 A conscious decision on becoming a volunteer entails the obligation of responsibility and sincerity/fairness in the fulfilment of the previously accepted task. For the purposes of the present article, an analysis of the available subject literature was done concerning the theory of motivation, and the authors included a description of selected theories, which particularly underline the significance of extra-pay motivating factors. No single universal theory of human motivation has been created so far. Many experts on the subject of motivation favours the approach to motivation based on the hierarchy of needs. It is believed that human beings have various needs, which can be organised into a hierarchy. One of the best known hierarchies is the one created by Maslow. Abraham Maslow, the American psychologist, claimed that people are motivated by five fundamental needs placed in a hierarchical manner, from the ones having the least pressure, to those exerting the 8
Jordan P., Ochman M., Jak pracować z wolontariuszami, Warszawa 1997, p. 15. Art. 2 of the Act of 24 April 2003 on Public Benefit and Volunteer Work, Dz. U. [Journal of Laws] no 96 item 873. 10 Wilowski A., Weź pokochaj smoka. Rzecz o umieraniu dzieci, Wydawnictwo Księży Marianów, Warszawa 2004, p. 95. 9
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most pressure.11 According to this concept, the needs of one level must be satisfied before the next level becomes dominant. Malsow differentiated the following groups of needs: • physiological, e.g. thirst, hunger and heat, • safety, such as protection against damage, threat, • social, e.g. friendships, belonging, acceptance, • positive self-esteem, e.g. self-respect, status, authority, • self-fulfilment, e.g. personal development and individual possibilities.12 The very frequent motivational factor for volunteering work is the need for contacts with others and breaking the feeling of isolation or dissatisfaction. The need to find one’s place in a group is also important. A group gives its members the feeling of unity and community, support and security. Volunteering work also provides people with the natural opportunity to be in the group of people, the values and goals of whom we can fully identify with. In the light of the Maslow’s theory, the volunteering work satisfies the higher-level needs. The second theory of motivation, which will be described in the present article, is the theory by Federick Herzberg, who divided the human needs into two types: the need for maintenance and the need for motivation. The need to maintain, also known as the hygiene factor, related to the feeling of security, working conditions, interhuman relationships and money. Herzberg noticed that all the above-mentioned factors in themselves do not influence people’s motivation; however, their absence discourages people. Therefore, the assurance of basic conditions in itself will not stimulate to work better. For example, a chair and a table given to a volunteer will not affect whether or not he/she wants to better perform his/her job. However, the lack of this equipment may lead to the reduction of motivation. The second one is the need to be motivated related to active search for and achievement of satisfaction and fulfilment. The motivational factors concern the following needs: achievements, recognition, new challenges, increase of responsibility, growth and development.13 Herzberg et al. underlines in their theory the meaning of extra-pay motivating factors. In the subsequent parts of the article, the authors look for the answer to the following question: “what is the motivating factor for a volunteer to work”. The subsequent part of the study came into existence on the basis of own research done. 3. Empirical studies results One of the areas researched by J. Marcisz 14 was the survey studies conducted among 56 randomly chosen volunteers working for non-governmental organisations from the city of Nowy Sącz and Cracow in Poland. The aim of the survey was to become familiar with the opinions concerning the volunteering work. The first question concerned the frequency of volunteering work by the respondents for non-governmental organisations and the members of such organisations.
11
www.wolontariat.org.pl, Jordan P., Ochman M., Wolontariusze źródłem siły organizacji, Instytut Polityki Społecznej, p. 7. 12 Armstrong M., Zarządzanie zasobami ludzkimi, Oficyna Ekonomiczna, Kraków 2005, p. 214. 13 www.wolontariat.org.pl, Jordan P., Ochman M., Wolontariusze źródłem siły organizacji, Instytut Polityki Społecznej, p. 7. 14 Marcisz J., Wolontariat jako forma aktywności młodzieży w świetle badań empirycznych, release submitted for a review.
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Figure 2. The main reasons (motives) for engagement into volunteering work
Source: On the basis of the results of surveys
The analysis of the empirical material indicates that the main reason (motive) for engagement into volunteering work is the need to help others (64.29%), next - the feeling of satisfaction and fulfilment (10.71%) and the possibility to gain knowledge and new skills (8.93%). Religious motives constituted an essential factor for 5.36% of those surveyed. Other reasons for engaging into volunteering work, as indicated in the survey, were: the wish to check oneself, gain new experience and commitment of relatives in the volunteering work. The people surveyed also had the opportunity to indicate the frequency of rendering volunteering work for non-governmental organisations and the members of such organisations. 41.07% of the respondents declared that they worked voluntarily at least once a week, while 25% of those surveyed declared that they worked in this manner at least once a month (figure 3). While 19.64% of those surveyed indicated the activity of several times per year. Figure 3. The frequency of rendering volunteering work for non-governmental organisations
14,29%
other
19,64%
several times per year
25,00%
at least once a month
41,07%
at least once a week 0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Source: On the basis of the results of surveys
The analysis of the empirical material also made it possible to find the answer for the question: what actions are taken by the respondents in terms of volunteering work? 42% of those surveyed indicated care, help for children and youths, help for disabled person (39.29%), organising events (37.50%) as well as care for sick individuals (28.57%). Among
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other actions taken in the volunteering work, the respondents mentioned the following: fundraising, collection of donations, office work and activities for the natural environment (figure 4). Figure 4. Actions taken by the respondents in terms of volunteering work (the possibility to choose a maximum of 3 responses) 17,86%
other 3,57%
activities for the natural environment
37,50%
organising events 8,93%
office work
28,57%
care for sick individuals
39,29%
help for disabled person
42,86%
care, help for children and youths 19,64%
fundraising, collection of donations 0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Source: On the basis of the results of surveys
An important issue touched upon in the survey was the indication by the people surveyed of the main benefits obtained from the work in the capacity of a volunteer. 60.71% of those surveyed indicated the possibility to gain experience, at exactly the same level - 44.64% the following answers were rated: becoming familiar with new people and acquiring interpersonal skills, 39.29% of the respondents managed to break down their inner barriers. Other benefits derived from the volunteering work included: the satisfaction of one’s own needs, the feeling of being useful and the acquisition of new, specialist knowledge – each aspect being indicated by 30.36% of those surveyed. Next, the possibility to observe the work of regular workers was pointed out (5.36%). Figure 5. The main benefits obtained from the work in the capacity of a volunteer (the possibility to choose a maximum of 3 responses) Source: On the basis of the results of surveys
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The skills indicated by those surveyed make us think hat through voluntary and free work, the volunteers not only provided help for those in need, but themselves saw the benefits from this type of work. Summary The research results unanimously indicate that young people take up voluntary work not because they desire profit but because they are willing to give help others. The feeling of satisfaction and fulfilment as well as the possibility to gain knowledge and new skills are the motivating factors for young people to work for volunteering purposes. Therefore, in the volunteering work we can discern the factor of humanisation of life of the contemporary man, as in the case of the societies much more affluent than the Polish one. The motives for taking up work by the volunteers surveyed indicate that they all had an inner need to help other human beings. Attention in diverted from our own needs and focused on the fulfilment of another human being’s needs. Work performed for the benefit of other people brings benefits to the volunteer, who satisfies his/her inner needs, and in the long run, it makes it possible for the volunteer to realise and use his/her own potential to an optimum extent. It also brings benefits to organisations for which the volunteer is working - they gain additional and “free of charge” human resources that support the fulfilment of their goals. Finally it is beneficial to the entire society by shaping a young and conscious society, which is going to create the social reality soon.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Armstrong M., Zarządzanie zasobami ludzkimi, Oficyna Ekonomiczna Kraków 2005, p. 210, 214. 2. Jordan P., Ochman M., Jak pracować z wolontariuszami, Warszawa 1997, p. 15. 3. Jordan P., Ochman M., Wolontariusze źródłem siły organizacji, Instytut Polityki Społecznej, p. 7. 4. Kopertyńska M.W., Motywowanie pracowników. Teoria i praktyka, Wydawnictwo Placet, Warszawa 2009, p. 14. 5. Kozłowski W., Zarządzanie motywacją pracowników, Wydawnictwo CeDeWu, Warszawa 2009, p. 14. 6. Łukaszewski W., Motywacja w najważniejszych systemach teoretycznych, (w:), Psychologia ogólna, Collective work, ed. Strelau J., Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Gdańsk 2000, p. 427. 7. Marcisz J., Wolontariat jako forma aktywności młodzieży w świetle badań empirycznych, release submitted for a review. 8. Mikuła B., Wybrane teorie motywacji, (w:) Zachowania organizacyjne. Wybrane zagadnienia, Collective work, ed. A. Potockiego, Wydawnictwo Difin, Warszawa 2005, p. 247. 9. Nowa Encyklopedia Powszechna, volume 5, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 1996, p. 279. 10. Pocztowski A. Zarządzanie zasobami ludzkimi, PWE, Warszawa 2007, p. 203. 11. Sekuła Z., Motywowanie do pracy. Teoria i instrumenty, Wydawnictwo PWE, Warszawa 2008, p. 10. 12. Sikorski Cz., Motywacja jako wymiana – modele relacji między pracownikiem a organizacją, Wydawnictwo Difin, Warszawa 2004, p. 12. 13. Wilowski A., Weź pokochaj smoka. Rzecz o umieraniu dzieci, Wydawnictwo Księży Marianów, Warszawa 2004, p. 95 14.
Art. 2 of the Act of 24 April 2003 on Public Benefit and Volunteer Work, Dz. U. [Journal of Laws] no 96 item 873
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ORGANIC FARMING IN ROMANIA-CHARACTERISTICS AND PERSPECTIVES Iancu Mihaela, Iancu Tiberiu, Tabita Hurmuzache, Iuliana Merce Banat`s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara, Faculty of Agricultural Management Organic farming has a major contribution to sustainable development, to economic activities increasing with significant added value and increase interest for rural area. Agriculture and organic production have seen really a remarkable development lately, including a growing of organic operator’s number - a group that includes farmers, producers, processors and importers. INTRODUCTION Organic farming is seen by many experts as the solution that could prevent a future food crisis, the world population facing with an increasingly acute shortage of food. In the future Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the EU, which will come into force on 1 January 2014, the organic agriculture sector, will have a greater importance, among the measures of CAP reform they are several provisions related to environmental protection. Thus, farmers will be encouraged to use simple production techniques, ensuring environmental protection and will receive extra money if they use techniques such as crop rotation, maintenance of permanent pasture, cover of soil in winter with plants that produce organic matter and for not working head plots to prevent soil erosion. MATERIALS AND METHODS Organic farming is subordinated to sustainable farming systems. Organic farming also contributes to a greater involvement of rural communities in the food distribution chain. The research was conducted on the basis of statistical data existent on international statistics and those provided by national bodies in the field. It was conduct an analysis of surfaces for organic farming at the EU level, areas planted with major cultures existing at national level and the number of organically raised animals. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Organic farming is a dynamic sector in Romania which has seen an upward trend in recent years, both in the vegetable and animal production sector. One of the essential conditions for the development of organic agriculture is to promote organic farming concept as for the consumer to be aware of the benefits of eating organic foods, so they offer a higher price for clean products whose quality is guaranteed by a system of inspection and certification. Organic farming creates a strong link between rural and metropolitan environments of the EU and brings huge financial and social benefits for members of these communities. Agriculture and organic production deals, from economic point of view, an important role in European agricultural landscape. They can offer a suitable alternative adapted to market of those farmers who want to respond of the increasing demand for high quality organic products. In the common agricultural policy, organic production benefits of the financial support, of policies and appropriate legislation. This approach is designed to enhance consumer confidence and create at the same time, the conditions for a fair competition between organic producers from the 27 Member States.
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Organic Farming in Romania – Characteristics and Perspectives
Iancu Mihaela, Iancu Tiberiu, Tabita Hurmuzache, Iuliana Merce
The area destinated to organic farming in the EU has increased significantly in recent years. In the 2000-2008 period, total farming area increased from 4.3 million hectares to an estimated value of 7.6 million ha (7.4% per year). The highest rate of increase was registered at the EU -12 level, in this case, the area increased from 0.34 million ha to 1.46 million ha (20.0 % per year), while in the same period, at the EU- 15 level the area under organic farming increased from 4.0 million ha to 6.2 million ha. EU-15 represents 80.9% of the total area under organic farming from the EU in 2008. In absolute terms, the Member States with the largest organic area in 2008 were Spain (1.13 million ha), Italy (1.00 million ha), Germany (0.91 million ha), Great Britain (0.72 million ha) and France (0.58 million ha). In total, they represent 56.8 % of the total area of the EU for organic production. In EU-27 the environmental surfaces raises to an estimated value of 4.3% of the SAU in 2008. The corresponding values for the EU-12 and EU-15 were 2.8 and 4.9%. In 2009, the total land area of the EU on witch was practiced organic farming was 8.6 million hectares, representing 4.7% of the utilized agricultural area in the EU-27. During 2006-2009, the average annual growth rate was 7.7% in the EU-15 and 13% in the EU-12 (in 2009, the EU-15 there were 81% from the total area for organic farming). In 2008, there were 197,000 companies involved in organic agriculture, 1.4% of the total number of enterprises from EU-27. It is estimated that in 2007, the organic sector represented 2% from total food expenditure in the EU-151. UE-12 10 8 6 4 2 0
UE-15
UE-27
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
UE-12 0,34 0,47 0,55 0,64 0,75 1,01 1,15 1,36 1,46 UE-15 3,96 4,54 4,87 5,05 5,08 5,29 5,54 5,76 6,16 UE-27 4,29 5,01 5,42 5,69 5,83 6,3 6,69 7,11 7,62
Figure 1. The area organic cultivated in the EU (million ha) 2001
2004
2007
2008
1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 BE BG CZ DK DE EE IE EL ES FR IT CY LV LT LU H M NL AT PL PT RO SI SK FI SE UK U T 2001 22 1 218168632 20 30 31 445420123 0 11 6 2 79 0 36 411 39 74 29 11 59 148203680 2004 24 12 263157768 46 31 280562534954 1 26 37 3 133 0 48 461 83 215 73 23 51 162222690 2007 33 14 294141865 80 41 280805557115 2 173120 4 107 0 47 482289233131 29 118149308660 2008
17 320150908 87 43 318113584100
162122 4 123
50 493314
140 30 141150336726
Figure 2. Organic surface (certified and in conversion) in the member states (thousand ha) In figure 2 we presented the evolution of organic surface from member states in the years 2001, 2004, 2007 and 2008. Even if in 2008 we do not have complete data, however, in
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absolute terms, member states with the largest areas in 2008 were Spain (1.13 million ha), Italy (1.00 million ha, with an area in declining) and Germany (0.91 million ha), which together represent 39.6% of the EU-27 total organic area. If we add further from the United Kingdom (0.72 million ha) and France (0.58 million ha), the five states together hold 56.8% of the EU organic. Over the period, the surface is maintained at a constant value for a large number of member states (Belgium, Ireland, the Netherlands, Finland and the UK). But there are countries with a steady decline, as Denmark. This may rather reflect the mature of industry that began to develop here before most other member states. In Italy, after three years of growth, organic surface will decrease in 2008 with about 0.15 million ha. There is a large group of member states (Germany, the three Baltic Member States, Greece, Spain, Poland, Romania and Slovakia), where sector growth could be described as dynamic, with a steady increase of surface in this sector. It is estimated that in 2008 there were approximately 197,000 farms engaged in organic sector in the EU-27, meaning 2.9% of all farms in the EU-15, but only 0.6% in the EU-12. In the EU-27, the share of organic farms is 1.4% of the total number of farms. At member state level, it varies between the cases of Bulgaria and Romania where it is below 0.1% and Austria, where it stands at 12.2%. The surface destinated to organic farming is over 9% of SAU total in five member states: Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Austria (15.5%) and Sweden. 18,0 16,0 14,0 12,0 10,0 8,0
15,5 8,9
6,0
10,9 9,0
4,0 2,0
7,3
8,0
6,5
10,9 7,5
6,1 6,3
5,4 5,6
4,6 4,9
4,4 4,5
-
2,8 4,3
2,1 2,7
2,6
2,4
1,5 2,1
2,0
1,0 1,0
0,3
0,2
Figure 3. The share of organic area in the SAU in EU - 27, 2008 (%) As can be seen in Figure 4, with a share of 15.5%, Austria is the member state in which the area under organic farming in total SAU is the largest. This is followed by Sweden and Estonia with 10.9% each. The Czech Republic and Latvia are equal with 9.0 and respectively 8.9%. It is interesting to note that between the EU-12, six member states (Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovenia and Slovakia) have exceeded the 4.3%average of EU27. These member states experienced an exceptionally rapid development of the organic sector. On the other hand, five member states of the EU-15 have lower shares than the EU media: Belgium (2.4%), Ireland (1.0%), France (2.1%), Luxembourg (2.7%) and the Netherlands (2.6%). In Romania, in year 2008, the percentage of organic area represents 1.0% from the total of utilized agricultural area. In 2009, Romania is way below the EU average in terms of percentage of area for organic farming in total area, with a rate of 1.2% compared to the EU average of 4.7. In Austria, the percentage of surface covered with organic crops is over 18% in Sweden over 12% and in Estonia over 10.5%. At the opposite pole is Bulgaria slightly above 0%, Malta with almost 1% and Ireland with 1%. - 191 -
Organic Farming in Romania – Characteristics and Perspectives
Iancu Mihaela, Iancu Tiberiu, Tabita Hurmuzache, Iuliana Merce
The surface of a farm in organic farming, for crop production ranges from about 100 square meters for growing vegetables in greenhouses, up to approx. 2000 ha for growing field crops. The average area of farms in 2011 was about 20 to 22 ha. In the year 2012, the area cultivated organically is 450,000 ha, while the spontaneous flora cultures collected from an area of approx. 520,000 ha. In 2012, the areas in the ecological system increased by 45% compared with 2011, accounting 3.38% of the total utilized agricultural area of Romania. estimates 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007
2011 2009 2007 0
400000
estima tes 2012 3222 56337 63446 7298 79167 130000
2007 cereal
200000
2008
2009
2010
5000
10000
2011
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
pastures and 57600 46006 38223 31579 78198 165000 hayfields oilseeds and 27713 25391 40295 53375 51028 10600 protein
estim ates 2012 1200
vegetables
310
259
344
trees
742
917
1202 2199 3324 6700
vine
113
601
668
734 894
914 842
1500
Figure 4. Areas planted with major crops In Romania about 67% of the organic surface is planted with corn, while 27% are industrial crops, and vegetables have the lowest share, of only 0.4%. Given the very low level of the areas currently occupied by organic farming in the EU, we consider that it premature the orientation of European agriculture towards organic direction in the coming years, while the more serious problems have not been solved yet - global food security in context of price fluctuations on the stock, reducing disparities between the level of economic development of different rural regions in the EU, the need to support underdeveloped countries outside the EU through food aid, says the document. Agriculture and organic production have seen really a remarkable development lately, including a growing number of organic operators - a group that includes farmers, producers, processors and importers. 2%
2% 4%
40%
23%
29% cereal
pastures and hayfields
oilseeds and protein
vegetables
trees
vine
Figure 5. Dynamics of the cultivated areas with the main crops In the livestock sector, in year 2012 has registered the growth of livestock raised by the organic production method, especially in sheep and goats - 160,000 head, 85,000 head laying hens and 60,000 heads cows. With regard to the beekeeping sector in 2012 were regis-
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tered a number of 102.881 bee families. From the livestock mentioned above, certified herds for the year 2011, 130.015 sheep and goats, 19.487 dairy cows and 58.203 laying hens. The number of operators (producers, processors and traders, importers and exporters) registered in the organic farming system to MARD in 2012 is 26,736. Their number might decrease at the end of 2012, after completion of inspections carried out by certification bodies and granting certificates. Starting with 2010, the annual number of operators increased three times over the previous year. This was mainly due to the existing support measures for the conversion period provided under art. 68 of Regulation (EC), nr.73/2009 establishing common rules for direct support schemes for farmers under the Common Agricultural Policy and establishing of support schemes for farmers. 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0
26736 9703 3834
4191
3228
3155
Figure 6. The dynamics of operators 2007-2012 In the year 2012, at national level there were 26,736 producers, of which: 103 are processing segment, 211marketing segment and 26,390 are farmers. Regarding the processed product in 2012 was an important increase in the number of processors (from 48 units in 2007 to 103 in 2012) and the assortment range of organic products was more diverse including: processed products from cow and sheep milk (cheese, swaitzer, butter, cream, etc.), processed products from soy (milk, tofu pate, croquettes), sunflower oil, a wide range of bakery products (bread, pasta, cookies), processed rice products, corn flakes, herbal tea, berry juices, processed hemp seed products, bee products (wax, propolis, pollen), processed pork products (sausage, ham) and organic wine. On the market demand for certified organic products is constantly increasing. At present, the domestic market for organic products is expanding. Organic products are sold direct from the farm gate or through specialized stores and through a network of supermarkets. On the domestic market in 2011 were sold: fresh fruits and vegetables, processed fruit and vegetable products, herbal teas, bread, pasta, flour, processed milk cow and sheep (butter, feta cheese) eggs oil, wine made from certified organic grapes, processed products from soy, honey etc. Much of the products from organic farming were exported. A percentage of approx. 70-80% of the Romanian organic products is exported annually. The import of organic products increased annually, involving hypermarkets in the retail distribution of them. Thus in 2007 the value of imports was about 5 million, and, at 2011 level, reached a value of approx. 75 million euro (estimates - according to the data available in the market). CONCLUSIONS Organic farming practicing in Romania is encouraging, although there is no domestic market for organic products. Therefore, organic farming is a dynamic sector in Romania, which has seen an upward trend in recent years, both in plant and in the animal sector. An important condition for the development of organic farming represents the actions to promote
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Organic Farming in Romania – Characteristics and Perspectives
Iancu Mihaela, Iancu Tiberiu, Tabita Hurmuzache, Iuliana Merce
the concept of organic farming in order to aware the consumers on the importance of organic products (quality and health), so that they offer a higher price for higher quality products. Development of organic production should be facilitated further, in particular by encouraging the use of new techniques and substances that are better suited to organic production. Organic farming should primarily rely on renewable resources in locally organized agricultural systems. To minimize the use of non-renewable resources, wastes and subproducts of vegetable or animal origin should be recycled to return nutrients to the land. Organic plant production should contribute to maintaining and enhancing soil fertility and prevent soil erosion. Preferably, the plants should be fed through the soil ecosystem and not through soluble fertilizers added to the soil. Essential elements of the organic plant production management are soil fertility management, choice of species and varieties, multiannual crop rotation, recycling organic materials and cultivation techniques. Fertilizers, soil conditioners and additional plant protection products should be used only if they are compatible with the objectives and principles of organic production. Livestock production is fundamental to the organization of agricultural production in organic farms as it provides organic matter and necessary nutrients of cultivated land and contributes properly to soil improvement and the development of sustainable agriculture. Given the competitiveness of organic products, agricultural potential and demand for organic products, increasingly higher in Romania, an important factor is the continuation of system support towards financial direction aimed at supporting organic production and processing sector also. Practicing organic farming in Romania is a premise for development. Organic farming can bring great incomes if they are respected the required standards of the law, if it proves the environmental quality of agricultural products and techniques used. Even if in Romania there is not a market for organic products because of the low purchasing power of consumers, there is external demand for such products, so a chance for export.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Fitiu A., Ecologia şi protecţia mediului, Editura AcademicPres, Cluj-Napoca, 2003; 2. Orboi Manuela Dora, Agricultura organică – de la producător la consumator -, Editura Eurostampa, Timişoara, 2008; 3. Toncea I., Ghid practic de agricultură ecologică, Editura AcademicPres, Cluj-Napoca, 2002 4. http://www.organic-europe.net/europe_eu/default.asp 5. http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/agriculture/qual 6. http://www.ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic/home_ro
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THE ANALYSIS OF ROMANIAN RURAL TOURISM ACTIVITY Iancu Tiberiu, Brad Ioan, Pirvulescu Luminita, Iosim Iasmina, Anda Ioana Milin Banat`s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara, Faculty of Agricultural Management Rural tourism is a complex economic activity, with a large coverage area, scope, which highlights, through a proper mechanism, the rural tourist movement. The search of the countryside for rest and recreation is a general trend in world practice of tourism. In order to meet this trend, many tourism organizations, profit or public, from different European countries are concerned, for many years, by the organization and institutionalization of tourism in rural areas. INTRODUCTION The dynamism, depth and extent of changes in all spheres of economic and social life – as the defining features of contemporary evolution - is reflected in economic structures changing in branches, in hierarchy of component branches in accordance with the requirements of technical-scientific progress, with rational exploitation of the full potential of resources and increasing of the efficiency, with the demanding for improving quality of life. In this context, tourism appears as a separate component of the economy, with an increased presence in social and economic life, with a significant participation in the overall progress and not least, as a promoter of globalization and sustainable development factor. Tourism is today one of the most dynamic economic sectors in the world. It's a thing already understand by tourism organizations, governments, associations and even tourists themselves. MATERIAL AND METHOD The study undertaken in this paper is based on an analysis of statistical data on the problem studied - rural tourism, a topical issue with major implications on Romanian rural area’s economy. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS In Romania, the transition to a market economy led to restructuring in all fields, determining multiple economic and social implications, political and cultural. Thus the stress of urban life has increased, there was a high degree of urbanization and environmental pollution and it has reduced working week duration. These changes have affected tourism, in the sense of modification of the holiday destinations, I n favor of the pro-active, run in nature, with positive and deep implications rural tourism activity. Because rural tourism is based on the attributes of the countryside and represents a convergence of socio-economic interest existent at local level, the influence factors on this type of tourism can be structured as bio-psycho-social factors, namely: - awareness of the need to lead a healthy life is a continuously growing concept; - rural areas are favorable for development of recreational activities in nature, walking, cycling, climbing and so on, the countryside being considered the healthiest, body toning through clean air, unpolluted environment, peaceful life without major stress conditions; - peace and tranquility - stress, fast urban rhythm are elements that favored orientation of tourists through places that offer peace and quiet much needed. A study on tourism market revealed the fact that relax and rest were the main motivations of those who wanted to go on holiday;
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The Analysis of Romanian Rural Tourism Activity
Iancu Tiberiu, Brad Ioan, Pirvulescu Luminita, Iosim Iasmina, Anda Ioana Milin
- III age population is growing. Because, on international level, active population retiring earlier and remained active over 60 years, to maintain its vitality and strength, people tend through a natural and sensible eating. Holidays in the country ensures an overwhelmingly eating organic, healthy, increasingly rare and more expensive in urban areas; - rural tourism is benefic for children. This environment is favorable to health of children, both through natural food (fresh food and quality) and the bond created with nature, with an important role in forming, shaping their personality (it I realized a direct connection with plants and animals), achieving also a mental balance. Temporary return to nature, to the simple way of life, is a motivation for all age, sex, socio-professional categories representing the result of conservation, health, physical and spiritual trend. Rural valences are the advantage that touches deeper connotations due to the context in witch economic and social life is running at national and international level. Romanian rural tourism activity, as well as other areas is subject of restructuring process. Acceleration and amplification of this restructuring is the result of globalization and sustainable development, manifested at all levels of the national economy. Having a favorable natural environment for rural tourism, Romania had the opportunity to work towards the preparation and promotion of rural tourism offer to align at international standards level. In the present, in Romania there are mainly two types of tourist accommodation structures: rural guest-houses and agro tourist household’s. - rural guest-houses - are tourist accommodation structures that provides hosting and catering for tourists, these can provide between 3 and 20 rooms, operating in the houses of owners or in independent housing, and means that can provide entertainment; - agro-tourist household’s - tourism structures with same functions as guest-houses, having 3 and 10 rooms in the same houses with the owner witch ensures all raw materials and food from their own or local resources. Analysis of the current situation of Romanian rural tourism reflects an insufficient funding of tourism promotion and, in consequence, a lack of adequate infrastructure for tourism promotion and information - currently existing only points for promotion of local interest. There are not specialized centers for tourism promotion and information, witch provides actualized data, complete and well-structured about country and tourist attractions. The information is also very poorly promoted on the Internet and because of these foreign tour operators struggling to create their own travel programs for Romania. To these is added the anthropic tourism potential, witch includes historical, religious, cultural, economic, historical monuments, ethnographic heritage. The entire national territory presents interest in terms of folklore and ethnographic heritage, each area having its specificity, which sustain cultural tourism practice. Given the existence of such natural and cultural tourism potential, diversified and of a high quality, in Romania is remarket a progress in many counties regarding villages attracting in domestic and foreign tourism circuit. The number of agro-tourist household’s is considered the vital indicator for the development of rural tourism activity, taking into account that, no rural tourism activity can not take place without the existence of a tourist accommodation base.
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Tourist accommodation units with tourist accommodation functions (number of units) 2000 2002 2004 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 3121 3338 3900 4710 4694 4840 5095 5222 Total Agro-tourist 400 682 892 1259 1292 1348 1412 1352 household’s % from total 12,82 20,43 22,87 26,73 27,52 27,85 27,71 25,98
2011 5003 1210 24,18
Source: Statistic Anuarry of Romania, 2001-2012
In the period 2000-2010 there was an increase of the number of rural pensions. Thus, in 2010 there were 5.222 accommodation establishments. Their number increased during 2000-2010, in average with 238%. For year 2011, there is a decrease of accommodation units with 4.38% at national level. 1352
1348
1500 1259
1292
1000
1412
1210
892 682
500
400
0 2000 2002 2004 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Figure 1. The evolution of agro-tourist household’s number In 2011 there were 1210 rural guest-houses (figure 1.), in decrease from the previous year, which represent 10.50%. An indicator that reflects more accurately the rural tourism offer is the capacity of tourist accommodation in rural guesthouses, expressed in places. At the tourist accommodation capacity level is recorded the same upward trend as in the case of tourist reception units specific for rural tourism. In the period 2000-2011 there was an increase of accommodation capacity in rural guest-houses (with 152.25% in 2011 compared to 2000). In case of accommodation capacity in operation this is higher with 146.8%, respective from 2.132 million places-days at to 4.892 million places-days. 25000
19783 20208 20683
20000
14551 15448
15000 10000 5000
16906
11151 8405 3188
3626
4039
4892
5378
2528
4835
2132
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
existing touristic accommodation capacity in opration touristic accommodation capacity
Figure 2. Existent accommodation capacity and in operation, in agro-tourist household’s - 199 -
The Analysis of Romanian Rural Tourism Activity
Iancu Tiberiu, Brad Ioan, Pirvulescu Luminita, Iosim Iasmina, Anda Ioana Milin
Romania does not have a well-defined image as a tourist destination and internal promotion is inadequate and undersized compared to demand. Currently neither the Romanian neither the foreign tourists did not have specialized promotion centers and information centers about tourism attractions, cultural events or special business, archaeological sites, information on places to stay, where to dine, the recreational opportunities, etc. Achieving this major field of intervention requires intensified actions witch aims Romania as an attractive destination for tourism and business together with sustainable development of tourism products, of the increasing degree of Internet use for promoting and booking tourist services. Although rural tourism has registered increases, it has a considerable potential that is not enough exploited. The tourism sector currently has registered the significant growth in the number of accommodation establishments and level of accommodation capacity. At regional level, the development of rural tourism depends very much on the existence and quality of rural guest-houses and on the presence of various types of folklore activities, and existence of ethnographic regions and also of agriculture and viticulture practice (agro-tourism). The specific of tourism for Bucovina (North - East) is the religious one in Maramures (North - West), architectural and ethnographic tourism in Transylvania (Central) - recreational and cultural tourism, cuisine and wine, and in Carpathian Mountains it is practiced fishing. Mountainous and forest areas from Romania provides a large number of opportunities for practicing tourism, and especially ecotourism. Another important tourist area is the Danube Delta (East), which also, presents a high natural value due to biodiversity and allows practicing various types of tourism (recreation, fisheries, food). Regarding regional distribution of agro-tourist guesthouses, Figure 3, it can be seen that most guesthouses are concentrated in the Central Region, 424, which is known as the most developed agro-tourist area of the country and with tradition in the agro-tourism field.
85
Regiunea Vest
74
Regiunea Sud-Vest Oltenia 2
Regiunea Buucrești
125
Regiunea Sud-Muntenia 71
Regiunea Sud-Est
223
Regiunea Nord-Est
206
Regiunea Nord-Vest
424
Regiunea Centru 0
100
200
300
400
500
Figure 3. Agro-tourist guesthouses situation in territorial profile This region holds more than 32.36% of the total number of agro-tourist guesthouses. The county with the largest number of guesthouses is Brasov, 177, followed by Harghita, 156 guesthouses. Central region is followed by the North West and North East regions, with over 200 guesthouses. The analysis on the comfort categories of tourist accommodation establishments, in agro-tourist guesthouses, shows that the predominant are those of 3 stars with a preponderance of 43.26%, followed by those belonging to 2-stars comfort category, 39.21% and classi-
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fied as having one star (4.62%), and four stars (11.53%). At national level there is not, in 2011 year, any unclassified agro-tourist guesthouse. The distribution on comfort categories of existent accommodation capacity and in operation (Figure 4, 5) follows exactly the structure on the comfort categories of accommodation establishments: predominates tree stars comfort category, followed by the two stars and five stars. 4,62 11,58 1,53 39,21 43,06
1 star
2 stars
3 stars
4 stars
5 stars
Figure 4. The distribution by comfort categories of existent accommodation capacity for agro-tourist guesthouses, 2011 13,3
1,88 8,13
35,59 41,1
1 star
2 stars
3 stars
4 stars
5 stars
Figure 5. The distribution by comfort categories of accommodation capacity in operation for agro-tourist guesthouses, 2011 Rural tourism and agro-tourism (specifically related to farm activities) are alternative generating income activities, which provide opportunities for development in rural areas, because of the unique landscapes, large semi-natural areas, innate hospitality of the inhabitants of rural areas. 40
34,3
33,4
33,6
36
35 28,4
30
25,2
26,3
20 10 0 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Figure 6. Indices of tourist accommodation capacity net use
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The Analysis of Romanian Rural Tourism Activity
Iancu Tiberiu, Brad Ioan, Pirvulescu Luminita, Iosim Iasmina, Anda Ioana Milin
Preserving traditions, culture, culinary specialties and beverages as well as diversity of rural tourism resources offers potential for developing this sector. Reducing the number of tourists causes a decrease of accommodation capacity utilization index. For year 2011, there is an increase of this indicator, with 11.29%. CONCLUSIONS Through the variety of landscapes, rich natural heritage, the specificity of different ethnographic regions, vivacity of traditions and hospitality of the inhabitants, rural area fascinates everyone who loves traveling and had the opportunity to discover the culture of those areas. Romanian village, both the normal one and with tourist function one, is a unique tourist product for the domestic market, but especially for the world market. On the other hand, Romanian tourist village can contribute to the discovery of our country as a possible tourist destination, generating an interest for Romania, as a place that offers a wide range of products, quality holidays, business opportunities, experiences, etc. The distribution of rural tourism accommodation units on the comfort category reflects the quality level of the offer, being a response to the requests from tourist regarding the accommodation conditions. From attractiveness point of view, the opportunities for practicing agrotourism in the region exists in all tourist areas, unfortunately the infrastructure is not sufficiently developed to extend this type of tourism.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Bran Florina şi colaboratorii - Turismul rural – modelul european, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti, 1997 2. Ciolac Mariana Ramona, Management în turism rural şi agroturism, Editura Eurostampa, Timişoara, 2009 3. Csosz, I. – Agroturismul şi turismul rural, Editura Mirton, Timişoara, 2007 3. Talabă, I., Ungureanu, D., Talpaş, J., Stoian, Maria, Nan, C., - Turismul rural românesc. Actualitate şi perspective, Editura "Performantica", Iaşi, 2007 4. Anuarul Statistic al României, 2012
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THE PRODUCTIVE EFFECT OF COMBINED FEEDS WITH DIFFERENT SHARES OF SUNFLOWER GRIT ON LIVESTOCK PERFORMANCE Petroman I., Sarandan H., Fraiu Gianina, Petroman Cornelia, Marin Diana, Ciolac Ramona, Lozici Ana, Bogosel Florin
Banat`s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara, Faculty of Agricultural Management The use of supplements in animal nutrition improves their digestibility especially when in rations prevail sunflower meal in different proportions. Use of sunflower meal in rations reduce the cost of the feed and has beneficial effects on growth performance of young animals and the percentage of illness does not exceed normal limits. Keywords: recipes, combined feed, sunflower grit, performance, livestock INTRODUCTION Finishing swine needs knowledge concerning animal production, feeding, finishing technologies, facilities (buildings, mechanisation), but one cannot neglect reproduction since we need to produce future animals and alter them the way we need them to be1. Swine breeding in Romania ranks second after cattle, being the species that ensures about 50% of the total meat production. The increasingly larger demands for meat have lead to the spread, diversification and multiplication of different swine breeds2. Taking into account the possibilities of ensuring a rich and varied fodder basis, the increasing demand for pork on both the domestic and foreign markets, the existence of a long-lasting tradition and experience in the field, we need to make all necessary material and management efforts to continue develop this important species3. The development of animal production is required first by the necessity of turning the vegetal products (cereals, etc.) into animal products (pork, in this case), which involves both material resources and human resources, all of which increase the value of animal products. MATERIAL AND METHOD In order to carry out his research, we studied the way in which combined feed recipes influence animal growth and development (animal performances) with different rates of soy grit in the recipes. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The combined feed (NC R-4) had a content of raw cellulose (CB%) of 3.61, and the combined feed (NC R-5), 3.79%. When feeding the swine with NC R-4, the mean number of diarrhoea cases was 3.28/day. Increasing the share of SFS with 2% determined the increase of diarrhoea cases on the average to 12.94% per day: this shows that sunflower grit (11%) in NC R-5 is the triggering factor of swine dysentery because it increases the share of raw cellulose (which is extremely rough and irritating).
1
Bologa Ursula – Aminoacizii de sinteză în nutriţia animalelor, Editura Coral Sanivet, Bucureşti, 2001 De Lange K., şi colab., - Manipulation of diets to minimize the contribution to environmental pollution. In Advances in pork production 10, Banff Pork Seminar, 1999 3 Sărăndan H., Petroman I. – Effect of fodler supplimentation with Biozim M800 and sunflower meal in growing pigs over 60 days of age. Lucrări Ştiinţifice Zootehnie şi Biotehnologii, Timişoara, vol XXXVIII, 2005 2
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The Productive Effect of Combined Feeds with Different Shares of SunFlower Grit on Livestock Performance
Petroman I., Sarandan H., Fraiu Gianina, Petroman Cornelia, Marin Diana, Ciolac Ramona, Lozici Ana, Bogosel Florin
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
nr cazuri media
Figure 1. Digestive sickness upon consumption of sunflower grit feed from soles fertilised with liquid wastes The recipe NC R-1 contained 2.77% raw cellulose, and the recipe NC R-7 contained 4.06% raw cellulose. We can see that the content of craw cellulose in the dry matter of swine faeces was 20.92% in the lot B and of 20.00% in the lot C. This proves the cellulose activity of the product with supplement. Analysing the performances of the N balance, we studied the effect of three levels of protein in the recipe (16.5, 14.5 and 12.5%) on the excretion of nitrogen and on the emission of ammonia from swine wastes during the growth and finishing phases. The level of raw protein in the recipe did not influence feed ingestion per day, which was 2.361-2.334 kg with a daily gain of 793-795 g. Reducing the levels of protein in the recipe causes a lower excretion of nitrogen through the urine. This level was 9.44 g/day/pig for a rate of 16.5% PB and 4.79 g/day/pig for a rate of 12.5% PB (Table 1). Table 1 Levels of N in urine for different rates (%) of protein in the combined feed Protein level (%) Nitrogen level in the urine (g/day/pig) 16,5 12,5
9,44 4,79
Source: Our own data Nivel azot în urină g/zi/porc
9,44 10 8 4,79
6 4 2 0 16,5
12,5
Figure 2. Levels of N in swine urine - 206 -
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The emission of ammonia diminishes with 10-12.5% per each percentage of raw protein in the recipes. The cost of the NC R-7 with supplement was 11.46% lower than that of the NC R-1 used in the control lot. The daily mean gain in the pigs in lot C was 4.37% higher than in the pigs in lot B, and the number of pigs minus variants in lot C was 24.82% lower (Figure 2); the total number of animals treated for diarrhoea was 32.20% lower and mortality rate decreased with 33.22%. Martor
25 20,92
Experimental (% din martor)
20
20
15
13,74
10,33
10 5,75 4,06
5
3,84
2,77 0,79 0,592
0,77
Preţul NC (lei/kg)
Conţinutul în CB % al furajului
Conţinutul în CB % al fecalelor
0,636
Sporul mediu zilnic Kg
Purcei minus variante %
Mortalitate %
Figure 2. Economic, production, and sanitary indicators in the young pigs fed on sunflower grit (14%) and a supplement Număr purcei trataţi de dizenterie 236 250 160
200 150 100 50 0 Martor
Experimental (% din martor)
Figure 3. Comparison between the numbers of piglets treated for dysentery (control and variant lots) CONCLUSIONS We have seen that the productins that improve nutrition creased the digestibility of vegetal feed through the digestion of cell walls (which was proved due to the better body weight) and prevents outbursts of dysentery among pigs because, through the digestion of cellulose (the high level of cellulose in the faeces), the increased supply of cellulose from sunflower grit from soles fertilised with liquid animal wastes no longer constituted a source of supplementary irritation of the intestine mucous.
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The Productive Effect of Combined Feeds with Different Shares of SunFlower Grit on Livestock Performance
Petroman I., Sarandan H., Fraiu Gianina, Petroman Cornelia, Marin Diana, Ciolac Ramona, Lozici Ana, Bogosel Florin
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Bologa Ursula – Aminoacizii de sinteză în nutriţia animalelor, Editura Coral Sanivet, Bucureşti, 2001 2. De Lange K., şi colab., - Manipulation of diets to minimize the contribution to environmental pollution. In Advances in pork production 10, Banff Pork Seminar, 1999 3. Sărăndan H., Petroman I. – Effect of fodler supplimentation with Biozim M800 and sunflower meal in growing pigs over 60 days of age. Lucrări Ştiinţifice Zootehnie şi Biotehnologii, Timişoara, vol XXXVIII, 2005
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RESEARCHES ON HEALTH SERVICES FROM URBAN AND RURAL AREA OF ROMANIA Ioana Anda Milin, Ioan Fruja, Iuliana Ioana Merce, Bianca Alina Bilia Banat`s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara, Faculty of Agricultural Management The term "health status" refers to the many facets of a complex problem: of the individual, group, specific certain social, regional, national. In the health status of population we have a faithful mirror of the living standards in all its components, including quality medical asistance. A population with a poor health status increases dramatically the resources that society should allocate to health care and social services, to the detriment of other needs of society Depth challenges facing our country complains - at the social level - policies and measures to stop degradation of healthcare. Health care reform in Romania led to changes in the health system infrastructure, the number of staff involved in providing healthcare services in both public and private sectors, in urban or rural areas. The paper includes issues relating to - european comparisons in health services - network of health units in Romania and their distribution by areas of residence - distribution of health professionals by area. The conclusions from the research come to confirm the urban-rural gap in terms of infrastructure and health services, rural areas being disadvantaged in this area compared to urban. Keywords: European, health, services INTRODUCTION Health status of population is determined by access to health, on the one hand, and access to health services on the other. Access to health depends to a large extent by external health system: genetic factors, environmental factors, factors of economic development socio-cultural factors. Access to health care is almost entirely influenced by the organization of the health system. RESULTS OF RESEARCH Currently in the European Union there are different health systems in terms of resources of funding: state budget financing through general taxes and health insurance, public or private health insurance, co-payment or direct payment of services to patients and so on. Choosing health system depends mainly on the state's role in health. In this sense we can speak of the following health systems: liberal, nationalized, brokerage systems. The liberal is to be found in the U.S. and partly in Switzerland. Britain nationalized system is specific and is characterized by universal access to healthcare population. A similar system also exists in Sweden. Intermediate System combines certain activities of the first two systems such as universality of access, organizing pluralistic medical system, free medical practice funding based mostly on dues etc. Health status of the population depends on a number of factors that are synthesized in the form of key health indicators. - 209 -
Researches on Health Services from Urban and Rural Area of Romania
Ioana Anda Milin, Ioan Fruja, Iuliana Ioana Merce, Bianca Alina Bilia
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 re ci Irl a an d S a Lu ue xe dia m bu Fi rg nl an da C ip ru D Ma an lta em ar ca
G
Le to n Bu ia lg a Po ria rtu al Es ia to ni a U ng ar i a Li tu an i Po a lo n Au ia st R ria om â Sl n ia ov en ia G Ital er ia m an R ep S ia ub pa lic nia a C eh Sl ov ă ac ia R Be eg lg at ia ul U O nit la nd a
Source: Pop Cosmina Elena - Health status of the population in Romania in the European context. An approach in terms of quality of life. Quality of Life Magazine no. XXI, no. 3-4, 2010
Fig. 1 The degree of satisfaction on health in EU Member States Analysis of statistical data on the number of active medical staff with higher education in several European countries and comparing them with the figures reported by Romania point out the next issues: -economically developed countries have the largest number of medical personnel with higher education, which demonstrates the importance it attaches to this sector, - In all European countries there is a great diversity in relation to the number of inhabitants per one healthcare frame. From the 11 countries analyzed Romania ranks second lowest number of inhabitants per one physician, only Poland having a greater number of inhabitants / doctor -this indicator was in 2009 in Romania, 1.9 times higher than in Bulgaria, Germany 1.7 times compared to 2.6 times than in Greece, 1.4 times than in France, for one, 7 times than in Lithuania. Table 1 Number of inhabitants per one active healthcare framework in the EU, 2009 Country
Medicine
Dentists
Highly educated nurses Romania 426,0 1.717,4 1.789,1 5.1289,4 Bulgaria 219,6 1.350,7 Germany 251,0 1.218,1 1.414,5 112,5 Greece 163,8 765,2 550,9 France 307,1 1.548,3 857,9 122,5 Italy 243,4 1.931,6 1.130,6 Latvia 327,5 1.476,3 1.466,6 195,4 Lithuania 251,7 1.382,5 137,1 Poland 430,9 2.960,1 1.521,6 189,6 Slovenia 403,8 1.609,3 1.217,0 477,3 Slovakia 304,8 2.060,4 1.859,8 Source: Eurostat database http://appsso.Eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/setupModifyTableLayout.do - Public Health
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- in 2009 the number of people that return to a dentist existing in Romania was higher than in Germany of 1.4 times, 2.2 times compared to Greece of 1.2 times compared to Lithuania, Romania being surpassed only by Italy, Poland and Slovakia. Regarding the number of health care professionals per 100,000 population, the situation is similar to that found in the previous table, Romania ranks last, with 234 physicians per 100.000 inhabitants, but a better place for dentists, 7 out of 10 in the case of pharmacists 8 out of 9 countries. Table 2 The number of health care professionals per 100,000 population in U.E. - 2009 Country
Medicine
Dentists
Pharmacists
Highly educated nurses Romania 234,8 58,2 55,9 19,5 Bulgaria 455,4 74,0 Germany 398,5 82,1 70,7 888,7 Greece 610,6 130,7 173,8 France 325,6 64,6 116,6 816,5 Italy 410,8 51,8 88,5 Latvia 305,4 67,7 68,2 511,7 Lithuania 397,4 72,3 729,6 Poland 232,1 33,8 65,7 527,4 Slovenia 247,6 62,1 82,2 209,5 Slovakia 328,1 48,5 53,8 Source: Eurostat database http://appsso.Eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/setupModifyTableLayout.do-Public Health
Analyzing population incumbent / hospital bed to the EU27 average of 181.5 persons Romania was below the average, respectively 150.9 inhabitants / hospital bed, ranking 3. On most indicators regarding healthcare, Romania is generally below the EU average, below some EU developed countries (Germany, France, Italy) and even some recent EU countries (Latvia, Lithuania, Slovenia, Slovakia), etc. The health system in Romania is a social insurance service and aims to ensure fair and non-discriminatory access to a basic package for ensured. Accessibility to health care services is determined by the convergence of supply and demand for such services. Factors that influence degree of accessibility of public health services are generally represented by: poverty level, unemployment, occupation, residence environment, insurance status in the system of health insurance, coverage medical personnel. Table 3 Number of hospital beds, 2009 Country
Hospital beds
Number of hospital Number of inhabitants beds for 100.000 for one hospital bed inhabitants European Union 2.760.426 550,9 181,5 Romania 142.203 662,6 150,9 Bulgaria 50.041 661,6 151,2 Germany 674.830 822,9 121,5 Greece 54.704 485,8 205,8 France 427.461 660,5 151,4 Italy 218.750 364,3 274,5 Latvia 14.434 638,3 156,7 Lithuania 22.719 682,4 146,5 Poland 253.815 665,0 150,4 Slovenia 9.389 462,0 216,5 Slovakia 35.248 649,7 153,9 Source: Eurostat database http://appsso.Eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/setupModifyTableLayout.do-Public Health
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Researches on Health Services from Urban and Rural Area of Romania
Ioana Anda Milin, Ioan Fruja, Iuliana Ioana Merce, Bianca Alina Bilia
Results that, in Romania, the disparities in access to health care appear in at least three reasons: - economic, including direct costs supported by individuals (co-payments, cost of treatment and hospitalization) and indirect (transport cost, waiting times); - geographic inadequate care facilities; - uneven quality of services of the same type. Also, at the macroeconomic level, it is important the share of health spending in the state budget and GDP indicators that provide information on synthetic expression "resources" of health. Health care reform in Romania has produced changes in the health system infrastructure and personnel structure involved in providing such services, both in the public and in the private sector in both the urban and rural areas. 3,00% 2,50% 2,00% 1,50% 1,00% 0,50% 0,00%
The share of health expenditure in the budget
The share of health expenditure in GDP
2007
2,72%
0,42%
2010
2,02%
0,40%
Source: Own calculations based on data from Statistical Yearbook of Romania 2011
Fig. 2 The share of health spending in the state budget and GDP Distribution of health services offered by residence - urban-rural differences are serious in terms of infrastructure. There are isolated area in rural zone where there are no offices for primary care, or if there is they have not permanent doctor and have a very rudimentary equipment. What is even worse is that this is just common areas with poor or aging, and thus with increased health care demands. Analyzing the number of health units in the range 2008 (the year when the economic crisis) - 2011 we found the following: - Public health sector has undergone significant restructuring program that changes the types of health units, merging, transferred from the Ministry of Health in local government (Government Decision no. 346/31.03.2011) - There have been increases in the number of hospitals, dental offices and pharmacies, due mainly to private sector development and the emergence of new public hospitals in four counties; - Significant declines occurred in dispensaries, polyclinics and family doctors offices. - Public sector owns most hospitals, general practitioners and private clinics majority, specialty medical practices, dental offices and pharmacies and drugstores pharmaceutical points.
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No. Name 2008 2011 crt. 1 Hospitals 458 464 2 Policlinics 269 262 3 Medical dispensaries 213 187 4 Family doctors offices 11.279 11.211 5 Dental offices 11.025 12.613 6 Pharmacies, drugstores pharmaceutical points 7.586 8.293 Source: Ministry of Health - Report on the activities of health units 2010 2012
2008/2011++6 -7 -26 -68 +1.588 +707
In 2011 the distribution of the main types of healthcare facilities by ownership was as follows: 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Hospitals
Poly clinics
Family Medical
Medical specialty
Dentist
Pharmacies, pharmacy outlets and drugstores
Priv at
20,9
94,7
44,5
87,7
83,5
94,5
public
79,1
5,3
55,5
12,3
16,5
5,5
Source: Ministry of Health - Report on the activities of health units 2012
Fig. 3 Distribution of the main categories of health care facilities by ownership, 2011 Distribution network of healthcare facilities by residence shows the fact that health network developed in urban areas where we have 91.6% of all hospitals, nursing homes 85.7% of that of the spa, 92.5% of that of medical offices. Table 5 The network of health units by residence -% No. crt. 1 2 3 4 5 6.
Title
Urban 2008 2011 88,8 91,6 85,7 85,7 88,6 92,5 59,0 58,1 76,8 75,6 86,3 86,1
Rural 2008 2011 11,2 8,4 14,3 14,3 11,4 7,5 41,0 41,9 23,2 24,4 13,7 13,9
Hospitals Spa sanatoriums Medical dispensaries Family doctors offices Dental offices Pharmacies, drugstores pharmaceutical points. Source: Ministry of Health - Report on the activities of health units 2010, 2012
In most rural areas are operating health centers -57.1%, 59.4% of medical-social centers, 58.7% of the working points of pharmacies and drugstores. - 213 -
Researches on Health Services from Urban and Rural Area of Romania
Ioana Anda Milin, Ioan Fruja, Iuliana Ioana Merce, Bianca Alina Bilia
Table 6 Distribution of the main categories of medical staff by residence environment% No. crt. 1
Title
2009 2011 Urban rural urban Rural Total physicians 88,9 11,1 89,4 10,6 din care 2 Family doctors offices 63,0 37,0 68,8 31,2 3 Dental physician 87,7 12,5 87,1 12,9 4 pharmacist 84,8 15,2 85,4 14,6 5 Medium sanitary personnel 90,0 10,0 89,4 10,6 6 Auxiliary sanitary personnel 86,1 13,1 87,6 12,4 Source: Ministry of Health - Report on the activities of health units 2010 2012
In 2009: - 88.94% of all physicians working in urban areas and only 11.06% in the rural areas while the rural population that year represented 44.9% of the population. - under these conditions the in urban area were 264 inhabitants per doctor in rural 1272, the ratio being 4.8 times lower in rural areas compared to urban areas. - 2176- rural population / family doctor to 1,563 people in urban areas, the ratio is 1.4 / 1 to the detriment of rural areas. - regarding dentists, the number of inhabitants was 1081 for a doctor in urban area and 6192 in rural areas and ratio was unfavorable of 5.7 / 1. - the number of inhabitants was in 5306 for a pharmacist in rural area and 1,162 in urban areas, the ratio being of 4.6 / 1 at the expense of rural areas. In 2011 were: - 1607 Inhabitants / doctor and 214 rural inhabitants / doctor in urban area ratio being 7.5 / 1. - if family doctors ratio was 2.0 / 1 or 1,974 inhabitants / doctor in rural and 999 in urban areas. - if dentists gap was even greater, of 6/1 and 5,223 inhabitants / dentist in rural area and 864 inhabitants / dentist in urban areas - if the number of inhabitants / pharmacist was 4,222 in rural area and 808 in in urban area ratio being 5.3 / 1. Once again, the share of rural population in total Romanian population was 44.9% in 2009 and according to provisional data of General Population and Housing Census of 47.2% in 2011. In 2011 the Romanian health system was served by 278 754 medical staff. Of these 33.2% had higher education and 45.2% were medical staff with secondary and 21.6% were staff. Urban health units had 89.4% of the physicians, 87.1% of that of dentists, 85.4% of pharmacists, 87.6% of the auxiliary medical personnel. 27.8% of all doctors are family doctors. Of these 68.8% are working in urban areas and only 31.2% in rural areas. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion we note that there is a significant gap between the existing healthcare in rural areas compared to urban areas and creates a disadvantage really important issues of providing appropriate medical care in rural areas. The rural - urban gap in healthcare services domain is due to the following causes: - Situation inherited in 1990 which is perpetuated so far; - Slow development of medical services in rural areas due to: low share of health expenses priority given to modernize urban health services - Acute shortage of medical staff, especially physicians willing to settle in rural area; - Material basis for providing health services not proper in this rural area; - Share still reduced of spending of a family in rural areas, for health care, situation explained by the lower income population in this environment as well as some old mentality of preventive medicine. - 214 -
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1. Mincă D., Marcu M. – Sănătate publică şi management sanitar, Bucureşti, Editura Universitară “Carol Davila”, 2001 2. Poenaru Maria – Sănătatea populaţiei din România în contextul European, Centrul de Informare şi Documentare Economică, Bucureşti, 2006 3. Pop Cosmina Elena - Starea de sănătate a populaţiei din România în context european. O abordare din perspectiva calităţii vieţii. Revista Calitatea vieţii nr. XXI, nr. 3–4, 2010 4. Vlădescu C., Buşoi C. – Politici de sănătate în Uniunea Europeană, Editura Polirom, 2011 5. Zanoschi Georgeta – Sănătate publică şi management sanitar, Editura Dan; Iaşi, 2003 6. Anuarul Statistic al României 2011 7. Eurostat database http://appsso.Eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/setupModifyTable Layout.do Public Health 8. Hotărîrea de Guvern nr. 346/31.03.2011 9. Ministerul Sănătăţii - Raport privind activitatea unităţilor sanitare 2010, 2012 10. www.ms.ro/raportdeactivitate2012
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STUDY ON THE POSSIBILITIES TO PRACTICE ECOTOURISM IN APUSENI NATURAL PARK Iuliana Ioana Merce, Ioana Anda Milin, Tiberiu Iancu, Ioana Merce, Bianca Alina Bilia Banat`s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agricultural Management, Timisoara, Romania When addressing relief-tourism relationship there is a double direction of the interaction between the two components, so that tourism can generate topography can influence its development, hosting constituent elements of the material, while tourism has an impact on the landscape both in its facilities, and the behavior of the individual initiatives practicing the activity. If ecosystems are characterized by the ability to adapt to change, developed via natural evolution in response to changing environmental factors and complex systems that integrate human component acquire an additional mechanism, namely the conscious and voluntary action of the people to manage system. This component of management, along with ways to restore natural systems, will be examined in this paper with the application of the regional system Apuseni Mountains. The administrative area of the Apuseni Mountains represent 5.9% of Romania and support 2% of the total population in 2010. Apuseni Natural Park is located in the central-north-west of the Apuseni Mountains and covers a massive part of Bihar in the south and north Vladeasa. The main advantage of this area is the presence of more than anywhere in our country karst topography that includes caves, canyons, gorges, karst plateaus. Among the unique karst forms in Romania include Valea Rea Cave, pothole V5 source Tauzia, Coiba Mare Cave Fortress of Ponor and Scarişoara Glacier, which is the largest underground glacier in Romania, with a volume estimated at 75,000 ice cubic meters. Keywords: ecotourism, sustainable development, biodiversity INTRODUCTION Ecotourism is a form of tourism in which the main objective is observing and awareness of the value of nature and local traditions and subject to the following conditions: a) contribute to the conservation and protection of nature; b) use of local human resources; c) have an educational, respect for nature - awareness of tourists and local communities; d) have insignificant negative impact on the natural and socio-cultural. Tourist destination is a geographical territorial area with the following characteristics: 1. a uniform and consistent marketing image; 2. a variety of tourism products falling within the destination image, tourist projects; 3. a network of general and specific services that contribute to tourism products in conjunction with the marketing image; 4. existence of an "administrator / coordinator" destination, with a definite policy and for coordinating implementation leverages the destination. Ecotourism destination is the tourist who, in addition the following principles: - projecting an image of responsible marketing; - the predominant destination sustainable management business; - the destination is a real support for local communities; - is the destination awareness and inform tourists and locals on its natural character; - the destination is implementing concrete measures for the conservation of nature. - 217 -
Study on the Possibilities to Practice Ecotourism in Apuseni Natural Park
Iuliana Ioana Merce, Ioana Anda Milin, Tiberiu Iancu, Ioana Merce, Bianca Alina Bilia
Sustainable development of human communities in the area, in terms of integration into the EU, require local human exploitation of natural resources and by developing traditional economy and tourism, in terms of preserving the natural environment. Local communities have a vital role in the park, in that they retain and maintain cultural traditions and value elements (buildings, annexes, traditional objects), are directly involved in landscape conservation Manmade, but also develop participatory service enhancing the attractiveness of the area as having a minimal impact on the environment. RESULTS OF RESEARCH Apuseni Natural Park is located in western Romania, in the central-north-west of the Apuseni Mountains, stretching a massive part of Bihar Mountains and Vladeasa Mountains south and north, on the territory of three counties (Cluj 40%, Bihar 32% , Alba 28%) in total area of 75 784 ha. Apuseni Natural Park covers areas on the territory of 16 municipalities, and property belonging to 25 communes. As the number of communities in the Apuseni Natural Park fully included 53 towns and 3 villages Holiday (Boga, Fantanele and Vartop), partly as contained another 8 localities situated within the park.
Sursa: Zinke A. – coord. (2006), Management Plan Apuseni Natural Park, Apuseni Natural Park Administration, Oradea
Figure 1 Framing the Apuseni Natural Park North area map Western and Central Romania The main resources of ecotourism interest is represented by: - natural environment, mainly karst topography, with elements of karst, (caves, potholes, sinkholes, springs, etc..) and those of karst (keys, slopes, ditches, forms of relief sculptures etc) largely covered with forests; - lifestyle and elements of culture and spirituality of the inhabitants of the area (ahitectură, crafts, customs, elements of folk, traditional occupations, etc..) - flora and fauna; - the history of these places. Ecotourism elements of the Apuseni Natural Park: - outstanding landscape values and ecosystem, but also a high degree of human intervention from other Carpathian mountain areas. - the complexity and diversity of karst topography: rocky slopes, deep valleys and gorges, ridges or "stitching", ditches, which are added a large number of caves, potholes,
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sinkholes, karst depressions, underground water courses (Fortress of Ponor, Fortress laugh Glacier Fire Alive, Galbena, Izbucul Ponor, lost World Karst Plateau Glacier Scarisoara); - in some caves were found fossils of animals that lived during the ice age (the cave bear, cave hyena, etc..) And traces of prehistoric man; - wild areas and withdrawn, air, water, and clean soil, biodiversity - hundreds of years of human influence on the natural environment, which offers special value landscape - increased accessibility territory - sensitive local communities - rich customs, traditions, and local art - traditional farming with a minimal environmental impact - traditional crafts - the vegetation is pretty mosaic, consisting mostly of beech and spruce forests, interposed large areas of meadows and pastures Biodiversity describes the full range of variability among living organisms within an ecological complex. Biodiversity includes both ecosystem diversity and genetic diversity of a species in the ecosystem. The basic components of biodiversity are: plant biodiversity and animal biodiversity. Apuseni Natural Park has several habitat types as follows: Dacian beech forests, oak and hornbeam forests Dacian, relict forests, alluvial forests, alpine and boreal shrubs, bushes dry alpine and boreal grasslands, rocky Pannonian grasslands and meadows , with a wide variety of flora and fauna characteristic of the area. Flora is one most specific mountain habitats with coniferous or deciduous forests, mixed forests, thickets of shrubs and grasses, meadow, grassland or rocky. Due to local conditions of soil, climate and topography, the framework sketched out some changes, disturbances and inversions. As a feature of karst plateaus Mountains, as a result of thermal inversions, there are areas where coniferous goes with everything being replaced beech forest (Fagus sylvatica) directly bordering mountain meadows. Fauna: The Apuseni Natural Park were collected and described many invertebrate species new to science, and many have been declared as endemic to the Apuseni Mountains. He is best represented group Coleoptera, Cholevinae (Leiodidae) and Trechinae (Carabidae). Troglobitic genera are endemic Pholeuon Drimeotus and the Apuseni Mountains with a very restricted area of distribution. A special attraction for Aries and a majority of its tributaries the fish fauna, with a clearly expressed zonality. In aquatic ecosystems Apuseni Natural Park meet a range of fish species, the most common are trout. Also within the park meet all common species of upland birds (blackbird collar Turdus torquatus, dormouse - Nucifraga caryocatactes, mountain tits - Parus montanus, crested tit - Parus cristatus, raven - Corvus corax, black woodpecker - Dryocopus martius, blackbird water - cinclus cinclus), large mammals (wolf - Canis lupus, lynx - Lynx lynx, deer Capreolus capreolus, carpathian deer - Cervus elaphus, wild boar - Sus scrofa, wild cat Felis silvestris, ferret - Mustela putorius and the otter - Lutra lutra, lynx - Lynx lynx, bear Ursus arctos.), small mammals, rodents and insectivores (common shrew - Sorex araneus, pygmy shrew - S. minutus, mountain shrew - S. alpinus, water shrew - Neomys fodiens, marsh shrew - N. anomalus, shrew field - Crocidura leucodon, books - Talpa europaea, hedgehog Erinaceus concolor). Areas of natural naturalness encountered on the entire Apuseni Natural Park are: - Blessed realm and Hoanca Nature Reserve (1.10 ha) protected area located on the territory of the commune Buntesti;
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Study on the Possibilities to Practice Ecotourism in Apuseni Natural Park
Iuliana Ioana Merce, Ioana Anda Milin, Tiberiu Iancu, Ioana Merce, Bianca Alina Bilia
- White Stones in Stanciului left side of the valley, the mountains Vladeasa geological formation consists of white limestone rocky slopes, important tourist and scenic area near the village of cranberries in Cluj County; - Molhasurile Izbucelor Valley (80 ha) botanical type nature reserve located in the origin of the valley Bitran, on the territory of stone; - Peak Buteasa found in the eastern part of the village Budureasa (2 ha) nature reserve where rare flora species vegetate, popularly known as the bubbly mountain (Trollius europaeus); - Padis touristic area situated in the northern part of Bihor Mountains, in the commune Pietroasa. The Apuseni Natural Park there are mineral springs used for commercial purposes, but Hell Valley, near the Warm Somes and Aleului valleys, there is one of the most important mineral water bottling unit in Romania - Stana de Vale. Concession belongs SNAM SA Bucharest, but is rented by one of the largest companies in the South - European Drinks, which uses springs to bottle Stana de Vale for around 340 million liters of mineral water and beverages derived. Concession paid to the state budget is € 1,360,000. Certainly, the source of Stana de Vale enjoy the park's ecosystem services, it is estimated that 40-50% of the supply of water (filtration) depends on the ecosystems of Apuseni Natural Park (according to expert judgment by employees Romanian Waters), given that the two of nearby rivers flow from Apuseni Natural Park. Keeping traditions and handicrafts contribute Apuseni Natural Park, along with other criteria, to develop ecotourism in the study area. Among the most important crafts discussed below: One of the old crafts of the Apuseni Mountains Bihor County and is the creation of fabrics of cotton, flax or wool household or making clothing and decorating them with interesting reasons specific to each area. Currently there are few women who practice this craft, and the most you can find in mountain areas with difficult access. The loom is installed only in winter, when skilled hands of women give birth to objects as diverse as traditional towels, tablecloths, knapsacks specific pieces of clothing or costumes. Figure 2 Textile art
Wood is a material very accessible, and is widely used in the household. While some crafts were developed with some specific in Bihar, adapted to certain areas, requirements and available materials. Among them are those who are passing lădăritul, scărăritul and especially among the Roma ethnicity population, achieving spoons, wooden and covet. Figure 3 Art of wood
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Figure 4 Eggs painted art
Activities and attractions available and suitable in the Apuseni Natural Park: Cycling - Cycling is becoming more popular both in Romania and in the region or elsewhere in Europe. Description of the cycling route, making a promotional campaign for this itinerary and a map drawing work should attract more tourists in relatively underdeveloped areas of the country. It also should stimulate further interest in the development of cycling routes in other areas and act as a prototype project. Caving - intended visit of caves located in the park. It is a rather difficult task practicing in undeveloped caves by people with minimal training required to be carried out only under the supervision of monitors or guides. The development of this activity is subject to the improvements that will be made in the caves of the area. Hiking trails - most of the routes is accessible to tourists with secondary. This activity leverages existing best natural scenery, knowledge and future development. In winter, trails are narrower, you can practice just around the resorts and less difficult routes. Inaccessible routes are recommended only highly trained tourists. Water sports (canoe, kayak, rafting) - Rafting and kayaking can also practice Aries. It is a form of tourism due to several factors: high costs, adequate preparation, the rivers flow, its practitioners from those number will be lower. Skiing - has more and more followers. The manifestation of this form of tourism is on the route Vartop - Arieseni - Padis - Vladeasa on the main ridge. The study area has undergone significant growth and is in various stages of achieving an infrastructure expansion project specific, with new tracks with a total length of over 11,600 m Cultural Attractions - aimed at enhancing local cultural and historical sites, traditional crafts, customs and habits of residents of Natural Apuseni Park. These activities are practiced by a growing number of tourists, especially in transit through the area. This form of tourism can be linked to local events often specific, such as craft fairs, tourism fair in Albac, carpenters Day (Horia) etc., also every Sunday in the village centers of country fairs place where locals come to buy different goods or to sell their products. Observing animals - is gaining interest, practiced in rural areas, for observation and knowledge of nature, immortalizing the image and recording sequences of interest known natural environment through the camera and film. Equestrian tourism - depending on how it is promoted and existing infrastructure increasingly arouses the interest of holiday-makers. These forms of tourism can be practiced in various areas, including the main tourist magistrare, and access roads in the area.
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Iuliana Ioana Merce, Ioana Anda Milin, Tiberiu Iancu, Ioana Merce, Bianca Alina Bilia
Hiking trails in the Apuseni Natural Park: The Apuseni Natural Park, there are many paths that can browse some walking for hiking enthusiasts and others on two wheels for mountain biking enthusiasts. Apuseni Natural Park trails are grouped around two major highways that cross the area from N to S on the main ridges. There are thus 23 routes and 10 routes approved not approved to be subject to the approval process, of which the most common are: - Blue dot (Circuit Fortress of Ponor): 5 hours, length: 12 km, Circuit trail visiting the most spectacular and grandiose complex karst in the Apuseni Mountains - Fortress of Ponor. Difficulty route high in altitude. Can be covered and departure-arrival in camping Glavoi. - Yellow dot (Circuit yellow) :: 10 hours Length: 19 km, circuit route for visiting the spectacular karst springs valley from yellow. Long and tiring route with portable high difficulty in altitude. Can be covered and departure-arrival in camping Glavoi. - Red triangle 1 h 20 min, length: 5 km This trail is a link between the two lines (blue band and red band) crossing the Apuseni Natural Park, respectively padis plateau of the Caput. - Yellow cross (Lost World Circuit): 2 hours - 2 1/2 hours, length: 7.5 km, the route to visit the Lost World plateau karst formations. Low difficulty, accessible during winter ski tour. Can be covered and departure-arrival of camping Glavoi, access to the entrance of the trail making on forest road on Dry Creek, Duration is about the same as the Padis cottage. - Blue triangle 5 h, length: 17,5 km route linking Padis and Scarişoara area with karst area visit the Stone House and the Gardisoara keys and the Dry Guard. Valley road slightly more than half the forest road accessible winter ski touring. - Blue triangle: 4 1/2 to 5 h, length: 13 km, Cranberries village - Cranberries waterfall – Cranberries village. Visitor arrivals in the Apuseni Natural Park is situated around 300 000 tourists can be accommodated in the 150 accommodation units (table 1) inside protected areas, or in the 600 accommodation units in the vicinity of protected areas. Existing accommodation facilities within the territorial administrative units of the park is in continuous improvement and diversification. Table 1 Unităţi de cazare în cadrul şi în apropierea ariilor protejate Accommodations protected Accommodation units in the areas vicinity of protected areas Apuseni Natural Park 150 600 Sursa: National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism - National Strategy for Ecotourism Development in Romania, Phase II, București, 2009
Table 2 Visitor centers and information points within national parks and natural Category Total Apuseni Natural Park
Visitor center 14 Sudrigiu Doda Pilii Padis Garda de Sus
Information points 31 Canton Scariţa Belis, Ghetar, Refugiul Salvamont Bihor, Garda de Sus, Rachiţele, Stei, Oradea, Cluj-Napoca Sursa: National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism - National Strategy for Ecotourism Development in Romania, Phase II, București, 2009
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Other accommodation represents campsites. Today on the perimeter of NAPs in Alba County are appointed places, lacking the necessary facilities (toilets, showers, organized waste disposal system, fences, parking, etc..) And no system of collecting camping fees. Other camping areas are provided by private entrepreneurs, owners of guesthouses, or local, privately owned land in built-up areas, etc.. In order to support local community services are proposed, the most important of which are: - creation of facilities for practicing crafts (circles cultural training for older youth by making traditional handicrafts of various objects with the possibility of obtaining the qualification certificate attesting traditional trades, supporting the promotion and marketing of products based on authentic local resource local) - create a "mark" the Apuseni Natural Park, certifying the authenticity of the products from the park, which is promoted by the Apuseni Nature Park Administration and economically producers to benefit from certain features (eg, to be exempt from certain taxes) - establishment of organized tourist information points, which are on sale handicrafts and other products bearing the "mark" Apuseni Natural Park - promotion information materials Apuseni Natural Park tour local network. Under Regulation Apuseni Natural Park, the proposed National Forest ROMSILVA within the Apuseni National Park is the location and arrangement restricţiicu purpose building permanent housing or tourism purposes as follows: 1. function allows: socio-cultural facilities, trade, catering, services, hotels, motels, hostels, holiday homes, facilities for tourism; 2. functions allowed with conditions: workshops for crafts, traditional technology and clean service, specific economic activities or required area, provided that no pollutants; 3. prohibited functions: production or service facilities that generate pollution, construction of production located in the area of national roads, county, important traffic of tourists. CONCLUSIONS Increasing the number of tourists visiting the park or through the park has a negative impact, especially if the impact is not controlled in any way. Also, with the development of winter sports areas in the vicinity of the park, the flow of tourists will increase. Car traffic in the area has known a continuous growth and are contributing to the pollution problems. Should be encouraged to use public transport, local transport of tourists can be used unconventional energy vehicles. The old traditional occupations of the inhabitants, about woodworking and farming becomes economic activity, generating continuous operation, uncontrolled irregular and the landscape, which is in contradiction with the principles of sustainable development. As a measure to redress this threat can be considered encouraging people to conserve, enhance and celebrate local culture and cultural heritage of the Apuseni Mountains: maintaining traditions, crafts (Vasari, shingles, cooperage, wood carving, etc.), customs and skills, organizing artistic and cultural projects, encouraging the organization of local events with direct involvement of the community.
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Study on the Possibilities to Practice Ecotourism in Apuseni Natural Park
Iuliana Ioana Merce, Ioana Anda Milin, Tiberiu Iancu, Ioana Merce, Bianca Alina Bilia
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Bann Camille, Popa Bogdan (2012) - Evaluation of ecosystem contribution of protected areas to economic development and human welfare in Romania 2. Gârbovan A. (2005), Regional development strategies and models for the Apuseni Mountains, teză de doctorat, Academia de Studii Economice, Bucureşti 3. Petrea Rodica (2004), Rural tourism in the Apuseni Mountains, Edit. Universităţii din Oradea 4. Zinke A. – coord. (2006), Management Plan Apuseni Natural Park, Apuseni Natural Park Administration, Oradea 5. (2012) EDEN - Destinations of Excellence - Apuseni Natural Park (Romania) 6. (2009) Interministerial working group - the designation criteria ecotourism destinations 7. (2009) National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism - National Strategy for Ecotourism Development in Romania, Phase II, București, 8. (2011) Plan landscaping Apuseni Natural Park 9. (2010) National Forest ROMSILVA - Apuseni Natural Park Rules 10. (2003), Tourism development strategy Bihor County Chamber of Commerce and Industry Bihor 11. Apuseni Natural Park - location, available at http://www.parcapuseni.ro/index.php? option=comcontent&task= view &id=77&Itemid=86&lang=ro
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LOCATIONS WITH TRADITION OF INTERNATIONAL AGROTOURISM Ramona Ciolac, I. Csosz, I. Petroman, Cornelia Petroman, T. Iancu, Iasmina Iosim, Diana Marin, Ana Mariana Dincu Banat`s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara, Faculty of Agricultural Management Among other activities of capitalization the village potential was born the idea of blending the traditional activities with the ones related to hospitality and recreativity. Agrotourism has grown increasingly more in the second half of the twentieth century, nearly all Europe. A holiday in the country entered in the habit of fresh air, nature, pure green spaces lovers. The typology of rural tourism specific forms is extremely diverse in countries with tradition in the field (France, Switzerland, Ireland, Austria, Germany etc.). Keywords: agrotourism, location, tradition INTRODUCTION
Searching the rural environment for rest and recreation is a general trend in world tourism practice today. Therefore, rural tourism in Europe fall, one by one, in the future local development policies. Integrated tourism, in rural areas is an alternative to solve at the same time, the problems relating, on the one hand, the village, and on the other hand the town. In European Union countries, agrotourism is not a new phenomenon. Over time, for most EU countries during the decades tourist accommodation was performed in a manner more or less spontaneous or organized. Each agrotourism offer is unlike other in Europe, there are countries with specific agrotourism offer (go here Italy, Austria, Switzerland, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Netherlands, Belgium), or a mixed offer - rural tourism and agrotourism - (go here France, Ireland, Portugal). 1 In the following we summarized the most important elements related to appearing and developing modality of tourism forms in European rural area, in some countries, considered representative: Germany, Austria, Italy, France. MATERIAL AND METHOD To achieve this scientific paperwork the authors used various bibliographical sources, and other materials and research in the discipline of tourism, on which certain conclusions have emerged. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Germany
Practicing agrotourism in this country began in 1965 when they organized the first of townspeople stays in villages. German agrotourism product is also found as "Holidays in peasant farms." Great success of the product derived from the exploitation of German industries and agriculture by small peasant farms, authorities concluding that "a guest brings more profit than any other activity conducted during a whole year."
1
Ghereş Marinela, Agroturism, de la tradiţie la ofertă comercială, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca, 2003
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Ramona Ciolac, I. Csosz, I. Petroman, Cornelia Petroman, T. Iancu, Iasmina Iosim, Diana Marin, Ana Mariana Dincu
As a result, in 1980 was inaugurated a project of tourist development of rural areas, entitled "to the North Sea to the Alps", which has proposed the creation of 2,000 holiday apartments with approximately 10,000 rooms (with single and double beds). Currently rural tourism is practiced in more than two thirds from Germany rural area. The competent authorities of Germany pay a special attention of tourist leverage in terms of rural areas where there are villages and peasant farms well maintained. Geographically, will meet facilities starting from North Rhineland, Westphalia, and then continue with Hessen, Bavaria or Baden Wurtemberg.
Most developed regions in agrotourism activities are Schwartzwald and Messen. The above mentioned regions can be combined with anti-trust legislation, with ongoing encouraging of "small and medium" business with family capital and not least with a very old German concept of family life and particularly on the role and position of women in society ("kinder, Kirche und Kuche") - which led to remarkable results and upward promotion of rural tourism.
Schwartzwald
Baden Wurttenberg
Even if the apparent accuracy, timeliness and German style give the feeling of a more sober atmosphere, modern attempts to not disturb anything that involves tradition. Rural ambience is complemented with several initiatives to spend moments of leisure. Packages offered by German rural tourism forms wearing perfume of beer festivities, color Danube and warmth of Grimm tales from childhood. Those who choose one of more than 3,000 offers of "Ferien auf dem Lande" (rural hospitality guide Germany) are proposed: 1. cyclo-tourist itineraries, horseback, with wagon or carriage; 2. visits to the workshops of artisans; 3. stays for naturalists (hunting photo); 4. walking (walking, hiking, Pilgrimage). Austria Agrotourism is an activity that has contributed to the development of new concerns – in time becoming professions - which led to the economic growth of rural settlements. Manifestations forms of rural tourism dates back more than 150 years and they are represented by:
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- Farmhouse (farmhouses with rooms to rent) and - Tourism inns. And since two decades ago, the vehicle concepts for rural tourism forms practiced are: - Tourist village recreation; - Resort to rest. It all started with the geographical position of the Tyrol, characterized by high traffic. Since the eighteenth century Tyrol is getting out of the shadow of Switzerland and becomes a area with tourist interest. Even though this area has past through the attempt of two world wars, it was restored in speed every time. In the '50s were rereached prewar conditions and the following development was not only fast, but also very strong. Growths realized in tourism field were based on: - Economic growth of the entire region; - Population growth; - Increased of leisure time; - Transport and infrastructure development; - Development of new communication systems; - Development of winter sports; - Not least of urbanization. All these have led to the approval and functioning of 25 tourist commons, in witch a family of two receives tourists on the farm, existing about 6 beds in each farm. At the end of the twentieth century throughout the whole Tyrol one third of rural households from rural area have rented accommodation areas. Today the statistics of the first years of the third millennium, placed Austria's on second place of tourist holders farms: 19,000 existing farm operation.
Leutasch-Austria
Saint Jakob, Tirol, Austria
In 1989 were celebrated 100 years of service to these concerns that have led to tradition. Almost a quarter of Austrian farms receiving guests for over a century, providing through this activity abundant living for about 10% of Austrian farmers. Austrian rural tourism product is characterized by a huge investment effort in properly equipping tourist structures, predominance of small units and their family character, the quality of tourist equipment continually improved (lounge, bar, TV lounge, games room, sauna pool, etc..). We conclude that in Austria there is a long tradition of agrotourism, aimed mainly at supporting agriculture and rural depopulation. Italy Italian agrotourism known as a form of manifestation "green holidays" and has as the main component agrotourism. Are famous regions Piedmont, Lombardy, Trentino, Veneto, Emilia Romagna, Liguria, Tuscany, Lazio, Abruzzo, Umbria, Campania, Puglia, Calabria, Sicily and not least Alto Adige.
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Ramona Ciolac, I. Csosz, I. Petroman, Cornelia Petroman, T. Iancu, Iasmina Iosim, Diana Marin, Ana Mariana Dincu
It is believed that 99% of people who spent a holiday in the Italian rural household willing to return with other occasions. Italian agrotourism attract through: - culinary traditions of Italian cuisine; - famous wines; - folklore dances and songs and art music; - various architectural monuments; - poetry and legend of each settlement separately.
La Bassa Valsugana e il Tesino
Val di Sole
Images Trento Province
Analyzing customers of Italian agrotourism farms we can say that are divided into several categories: • occasional customers, represented especially by people aged between 30 and 40 years who want an escape on weekends; • people who are passing through the area, witch, along the way, stop briefly at a farm. They want to spend a quiet night and rest for the next day to go on. For this reason, they merely consume a breakfast snack and possibly usually do not want other services; • young people are customers who may have age between 20 and 26 years. Organized in groups of 6-8 people, young people come to farms, exclusively for sports and leisure services. Less interested in the quality of food, they spend most of their time outdoors; • older people, eager to rest, to eat good things and making trips pleasant and quiet are a easily pleased customer group. In general, they have enough material resources to indulge in all kinds of service, but sometimes can be limited to buy natural products, to sit down in the sun or read a book under a tree; • gourmets, practice agrotourism exclusively to taste foods, that they appreciate for their naturalness; • couples with children, represents 50% of customers of existing farms, they are aged between 30 and 40 years and are the group most interested. They can spend even a whole month on a farm, are likely to require additional services in an organized frame (and depending on the age of children). They have reasonable opportunities to spend and are willing, especially for their children to buy farm products, relying on guaranteed freshness; • children for whom Italian agrotourism comes with a varied offer of "teaching factories" in which children are helped to become familiar with the lifestyle and traditions of the countryside.
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In order to attract customers, Italian business men invest considerable sums in advertising. In this area, the number of customers is directly proportional to the number of advertising actions, so advertising can be considered as a regular column in the company balance sheet. Since it was established agrotourism in Italy witnessed a remarkable popularity. Those 7,000 private farms existing at national level working at a sustain rhythm and the demand shows no signs of diminishing. France A country with ancient traditions in practicing rural tourism forms is France. This form of tourism was considered: - Solution to the problems of agriculture, its development is possible due to the tendency of citizens to have a family residence in the country; - The manifestation of the phenomenon of fragmentation of leisure holidays allowing more places. Rural tourism in France is practiced especially by families that can enjoy by holiday fragmentation, in rural settlements from region such as: Haute-Savoie, Herault, Saone and Loire, Cotes d'Armor, Bas-Rhin to Burgundy, Brittany and Alsace. France is considered the swing of tourism in rural areas, because of old traditions and maximum rates of diversification and promotion organization which implements them. Most part of the equipment can be called French country-house, addresses such as: Gîtes de France "," et Auberges Logis de France "," Bienvenu of the firm "," Stations Vertes de vacances "," Relais et Chateaux ""Relais du Silence", "Camping et Caravaning", etc.. Since 1965 it is met the concept of "green resort" ("vert station") as full tourism product consists of accommodation and food, recreational equipment and its own trading. The year 1975 brings improvements in rural tourism activity by organizing tourist circuits and promotion of equestrian tourism, river and pedestrian "randonee" in rural settlements. Currently French rural tourism offer is based, primarily, on the holiday homes known as "les Gates de France", designating rural shelters, on private, or individual farmers and craftsmen, as well as landscaped communal family as bungalows or large pavilions with apartments of 1-5 rooms. They are built and designed according to the criteria of quality books and their classification is based on the comfort level (1, 2 or 3 ears). In France 60% of tourists who spend their holidays in the countryside prefer long stays of four weeks and only 8% on the very long for over 2 months. Tourists from all "corners" of the world are attracted to specific French cuisine foods, offered in a special ambience of the gîtes site, complete with incomparable charm of the French hosts. With all the above, and despite its age, French rural tourism starts much harder than other existing forms of tourism. CONCLUSIONS Agrotourism in the European countries becomes in the last decades of this century, a priority in local development policies of these countries, now and in the future, this type of tourism based on three axes: space, people and products that are in a close correlation can not exist without each other. Regarding the space (natural and anthropogenic) stands large differences, especially in the services and facilities that are customized from one country to another and from one region to another. Private initiative of farmers in promoting agrotourism must be integrated into a comprehensive development plan to provide a complete and quality agro products.
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Ramona Ciolac, I. Csosz, I. Petroman, Cornelia Petroman, T. Iancu, Iasmina Iosim, Diana Marin, Ana Mariana Dincu
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Buciuman E., Economia turismului rural şi agroturismului, Editura ProTransilvania, Alba-Iulia, 1999 2. Csősz I., Agroturism şi Turism Rural, Editura Mirton, Timişoara, 2007 3. Ciolac Mariana Ramona, Management în turism rural şi agroturism, Editura Eurostampa, Timişoara, 2009 4. Ghereş Marinela, Agroturism, de la tradiţie la ofertă comercială, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca, 2003 5. Martin Simona Cristina, Marinău Călina, Ciolac Ramona, European integration, opportunity for Romanian health tourism development, International Scientific Conference ,,Science and innovative environment” Tomori Pal College, Kallocsa, 19 november, 2009, ISBN: 978-963-88162-1-4 Ö, 978-963-88162-4-5, Pag.101-106 6. Panyik Emese, Costa C., Ratz Tamara, (2011), Implementing integrated rural tourism: An event-based approach, Tourism Management, Volume: 32, p.: 1352-1363 7. Tabără-Amânar C.G., Stanciu S., Moatăr M. Maria, Ştefan Carolina, (2012), Study on product development and tourist destinations in Romania and its legal implications, Lucrări Ştiinţifice, Facultatea de Management Agricol, Seria I, vol XIV, p.305-310
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DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES OF EUROPEAN TOURISM Ioan Csosz1, Andrea Miklósné Zakar2, Ramona Ciolac1, Simona Martin1 1: Banat`s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara, Faculty of Agricultural Management 2: Tomori Pál College Tourism can play a significant role in the development of European regions. Infrastructure created for tourism purposes contributes to local development, while jobs that are created or maintained can help counteract industrial or rural decline. Sustainable tourism involves the preservation and enhancement of cultural and natural heritage, ranging from the arts to local gastronomy or the preservation of biodiversity. Indeed, tourism can be an important activity with social, cultural and environmental implications, involving large numbers of small and medium-sized enterprises. Its contribution to growth and employment varies widely from one region of the EU to another. Keywords: European, tourism, strategies INTRODUCTION
Increasingly more tourists - every year more numerous - discover the freedom and facility for tourism in rural areas. Generally this tourists are seeking accommodation and living conditions typical rural, a decent degree of comfort, traditional cuisine of the region in which they are, waiting a diversification in time of the offer. Also most of the "actors" of the tourism world seeks a stronger development of the equipments and their harmonization with the natural environment and socio-cultural of tourist areas. Both providers and tourists trying to harmonize the interest for a great vacation with a desire to improve its impact - in terms of social, cultural and protection, or mitigate the effect of degradation – over the environment. MATERIAL AND METHOD To achieve this scientific paperwork the authors used various bibliographical sources, and other materials and research in the discipline of tourism, on which certain conclusions have emerged. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION At the beginning of the decade the main determinants of the development of European tourism to the third millennium were grouped by the OMT experts in: - Stabilize incomes for consumption; - A relative decrease in departures of tourists from Northern Europe; - Liberalizing travel in Eastern Europe countries; - Gulf War and the former Yugoslavia, as temporary inhibitors; - Depreciation of U.S. dollar against major Western currencies; - Development of some promotional policies of the administrations of European countries, specific to tourism sector from each country.
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Ioan Csosz, Ramona Ciolac, Simona Martin, Miklósné Dr. Zakar Andrea
Table 1.The top 10 tourist destinations - nights spent in collective tourist accommodation structures, 2011
The EU is a major tourist destination, six of its member states being among the top ten holiday destinations in the world. Tourism has the potential to contribute to employment and economic growth and the development of rural, peripheral or less developed.
Source: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics
Across the whole of the EU-27 in 2011, the most popular region for residents (in this case French residents) to visit was the Mediterranean region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur with 37.3 million nights spent by domestic tourists. The most popular destinations for nonresidents (foreign tourists) were the Spanish island regions of the Canarias and Illes Balears and the Spanish mainland region of Cataluña, where 76.0 million nights, 57.2 million nights and 44.0 million nights respectively, were spent by foreign tourists in 2011.
Fig.1 tourist intensity, 2011 Source: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics
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Source: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics The role that tourism plays in generating growth and jobs and its impact on other policy areas ranging from regional policy, diversification of rural economies, maritime policy, sustainability and competitiveness to social policy and inclusion (tourism for all) are widely acknowledged. Subordinate strategy of European tourism development provides mainly: a) adequacy of supply to demand through changes in existing tourism products. New tourism products and programs will aim to stimulate tourism development in peripheral areas and increased the number of tourists by reducing nontourists number along with the creation of some facilities for extra season; b) specialization of tourism products on market segments that include age groups 1524, 25-55 and over 55, especially for the category 15-24 years, witch in EU countries number 51 million people; will be create educational arrangements specific to exchanges of people, programs and experience of teachers, students and pupils of institutions of European countries; c) modernization and development of social and health tourism through community grants system, while the potential of this sub sector is insufficiently capitalized due to its low profitability for travel agencies and the lack of motivation of the offer;
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Development Strategies of European Tourism
Ioan Csosz, Ramona Ciolac, Simona Martin, Miklósné Dr. Zakar Andrea
d) in mountain tourism the risk of lack of snow causes a tendency of deseasonalisation of mountain vacations combined with market expansion in several areas including Eastern European; e) euro tourist products new or expanding: - euro tourist products with great facilities and discounts, according to the "Tourism for all" program adopted by 18 European countries participating in the Conference from Gatwick - England, as a tourism pan-European project; - tourism products substantially subsidized in social tourism frame, by the associations and trade unions for the market segment, "Father, mother and children with low incomes" in case of Greece, Cyprus and Spain or with government subsidies in Sweden case; - development of "eurovillages" product released as a product of social tourism by European Economic Interest Group having as members the representants of specific segments of rural tourism from France, Belgium, Italy, Switzerland, Portugal, Spain and Germany; - development and expansion of "Cheques vacances" products on markets from many countries and whose success resides in his subsidy, between 20 and 80% of the voucher, by the employee works councils; - F.I.T. tourism products on short period for individual tourists segment offered by tour operators, hotel chains and airlines; - expanding of product offerings for rural tourism in the entire European pool; - development of "holiday club" product as a profitable market segment and in continue expansion in the North and South European countries. Subordinate strategy of European tourism development provides
adequacy of supply to demand through changes in existing tourism products
specialization of tourism products on market segments
modernization and development of social and health tourism through community grants system
in mountain tourism the risk of lack of snow causes a tendency of deseasonalisation
euro tourist products new or expanding
Fig.2 Direction of subordinate strategy of European tourism
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The support of market development for the new products and also of the tourism market is represented in several European countries by the incentive schemes, subsidies and financial support of tourism consumption at all levels of micro, meso and macro of tourism. Such systems include hierarchical institutions, travel agencies, local administrations and governments. These facilities systems include, by countries: - In Greece and Spain - financial allocations for investments support by the size and their importance, preferential financial allocations investment for special investments objectives (especially in hostelry), interest rate subsidies and long-term loans with government guarantees for tourism subsectors or sectors development, tourist tax subsidies through tax cuts; - In Switzerland - subsidizing development of isolated areas that have tourism potential; - In Sweden - subsidizing social tourism with government support; - In Portugal - Tourism Found is a governmental source of credit with subsidized interest rates, covering 60% of the investment; - In England - primary sources of financial assistance are groups acting directly in tourism and secondary sources occur in the public sector are represented by capital grants and low-interest loans, which are administered by the eight specialized committees and councils components of tourism (Art Council, Historic Building Council, and so on). European program of implementation of support for tourism is provided in the Action Plan for tourism and is coordinated by Directorate "Tourism Unit" of the European Commission including sub-studies, support, advice and financial support to develop the tourism sector of the member countries. CONCLUSIONS Tourism development requires both economically and socially. Thus he contributes to the economic life, through the following: - The possibility of achieving a long-term development policy, in close contact with other policies, agriculture, infrastructure, environmental protection; - The opportunity to become a support for new business and jobs and to determine a new development in the local and regional level; - Encouraging local activities that may cause the development of specific trade and create new jobs; - Increased income for residents generated by capitalizing local resources; - Dynamic factor in the process of increasing the quality of life.
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Development Strategies of European Tourism
Ioan Csosz, Ramona Ciolac, Simona Martin, Miklósné Dr. Zakar Andrea
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Buciuman E., Economia turismului rural şi agroturismului, Editura ProTransilvania, Alba-Iulia, 1999 2. Csősz, I., Agroturismul montan, Editura Mirton, Timişoara, 1996 3. Csősz I., Agroturism şi Turism Rural, Editura Mirton, Timişoara, 2007 4. Ciolac Mariana Ramona, Management în turism rural şi agroturism, Editura Eurostampa, Timişoara, 2009 5. Ciolac Ramona, Csosz I., Pet Elena, Martin Simona, Dincu Ana Maria, Perspectives of agrotourism development in rural area Revista Agrobuletin AGIR nr.8/2011, ISSN 2066-6179, pag. 170-176 6. Martin Simona, Csosz I., Ramona Ciolac, Analysis of rural tourism contribution to rural area development by dimensions, Revista Agrobuletin AGIR nr.13/2012, ISSN 2066-6179, pg. 93-96 7. Radanov Iasmina, Joining the European Community: The Necessity of Studying Communication, Simpozionul Internaţional, Specializare, Integrare şi Dezvoltare, Secţiunea Relaţii Economice Internaţionale – Integrare Europeană, Facultatea de Ştiinţe Economice, Universitatea "Babeş Bolyai" Cluj – Napoca, 14 -15 noiembrie 2003, Editura Sincron, Cluj – Napoca, 316 – 320, ISBN 973 – 86547 – 4 – 2
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PROMOTION AND MANIPULATION TECHNIQUES - CASE STUDY Iasmina Iosim, Tiberiu Iancu, Diana Marin, Gabriela Popescu, Luminita Pirvulescu, Carmen Dumitrescu Banat`s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara, Faculty of Agricultural Management The present paper aims at analyzing ways of promotion and manipulation used in the case of Rosia Montana – a very popular subject nowadays. Rosia Montana is the oldest place in Europe and it is known due to gold mining and. We consider this area an important one, in which the tourism can be developed in order to offer to the population another alternative to obtain means of life and to preserve the cultural and natural heritage. Tourism influences lifestyle of residents and is working to broaden their spiritual horizon, encouraging the preservation of traditional elements, eliminating trends in standardization and generalization, favoring preservation of socio-cultural identity and assuming a distinct personality that individualizes Romanian tourism in global tourism. A very up to date topic with lots of pros and cons, cause if they start mining we can stop talking about tourism. Keywords: manipulation, promotion, techniques, tourism, heritage INTRODUCTION Rosia Montana is the oldest place in Europe and dates back to the year 131 AD, and was known as Alburnus Maior. It was founded by the Romans and was inhabited by miners brought from the provinces of the Roman Empire. Traditions and customs are preserved in this area and therefore people, even if they suffer and are affected by all that is happening in their community, are not defeated and still struggling, although most locals have given up in favor of the mining project. In social plan tourism activity has a positive impact, as evidenced by increasing social and professional opportunity, creating jobs both in tourism, infrastructure and general appearance of seasonal jobs, especially for youth and women, ensuring social progress, increase cleanliness and public hygiene, general comfort in tourist destinations and decreasing differences between socio-professional categories in terms of revenues1. Being the best for rest, recreation and restoration of working capacity, tourism is also a way of expansion of the horizon of knowledge, educating aesthetic taste, respect for national values, becoming "an act of Knowledge, training and education "2. Harnessing the cultural and historical heritage of the Romanian people, contributing to the revitalization of modern tourism and cultural acts are a way of asserting traditional culture and promoting Romania's image abroad. Enhancing tourism activity favors the development and revitalization of cultural traditions and religious works to increase public interest for the preservation, conservation and enhancement of tourist sailing goals. Material and method Promoting tourism consists of a set of communication approaches aimed at ongoing transmission in various ways, of some messages designed to inform both potential customers and tour operators on the characteristics of tourism products and services offered for sale, in order to reinforce a positive image and to cultivate a positive attitude towards them and the 1 2
Nistoreanu P. şi col. Ecoturism şi turism rural, Editura ASE, Bucureşti, 2003, p25 Barbu Gh., Turismul în economia naţională, Ed. Sport-Turism, Bucureşti, 1981, p82
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firm, namely to determine in the mentality of consumer buying habits of tourists, for the company that makes the offer to purchase and consumption of tourists, convenient for the company. Promoting tourism goes through a process of improvement and adaptation being forced to act and changing strategies and positioning of a product under full featured of relentless evolution. Promotional activities in rural tourism require significant investment due to the large geographical extent of tourism markets, fierce competition event of intangible nature of the tourism product. From this latter perspective we can say that the intangible nature services increase the importance of tourism promotion strategy. Manipulation means the act of determining a social actor (person, group, community, etc.) To think and act in a manner consistent with the interests of the originator, and not its interests through the use of techniques such as persuasion, intentionally distorting truth, giving the impression of freedom of thought and decision. This is the reason why we chose Rosia Montana to discuss about. Results and discussions Rosia Montana is an excellent example of occupational civilization. All the heritage, archaeological remains or buildings that make up the local architectural complex or inhabitants traditions still alive in their majority, have the centered occupation of the local people, mining. According to the Center for Research "Apuseni Mountains" of Alba Iulia, Rosia Montana population is 3865 inhabitants, of which 82.6% are Romanian, 16.5 gypsies% and 0.2% Hungarian. In Table 1 is presented population of the place classified by various criteria. Table 1 Population classification Nr. crt. Criteria 1 Sex 2 3
4
5
Specification
- women – 1993 - men– 1879 - 0-19 years – 1199 Age - 19-65 years – 2178 - Over 65 - 495 - orthodox – 3322 Religion - roman-catholic – 154 - Pentecostal – 128 - Greek -catholic – 102 - Baptist – 60 - Unitarian – 30 - Christian Gospel – 24 - No religion – 23 - Undeclared – 11 - Others -10 - reformed – 5 - Adventist – 2 - Atheists – 1 - Mining Occupation - Commerce - Service - Agriculture in their households - Romanian -3518 Etnics - Gypsies – 289 - Hungarian – 55 - Germans – 6 - Serbian – 1 - Italian – 1 - Other – 2 Source: http://turism.rosia-montana.ro
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The mining project aims at conservation of the protected area and enhancement of historical and protected areas Tău Gaurii, Carpeni and Piatra Corbului. Through the mining project Rosia Montana Gold Corporation project aims to build a modern high capacity with advanced technology for the recovery of gold and silver, which will set a new standard for the mining industry in Romania. Project development work began in 1997, with exploitation activities. The development phase is followed by obtaining permits and authorizations, and then during construction and commissioning, culminating in actual operation. Operations will run continuously for 16 years, depending on the gold reserves already confirmed that underpin the development of this project proposal. Operating period may be extended depending on the results of future mining geology. The project activity will be at least 25 years, at the end of a process which will begin closure and rehabilitation operation, followed by post-closure monitoring activities. Developing actual activities includes, in addition specific mining and processing activities, and the following: - Improving the harmful environmental effects created by centuries of mining in ancient times and more recent; - Activities for protection of cultural heritage (archaeological research, ratings, rescue excavation, dating artifacts, preserving the site of the most important and representative archaeological elements); - Assistance for mine closure current subsidized by the government (RoşiaMin); - Displacement of inhabitants and existing facilities in the affected areas, and social activities. The area location is characterized by springs and contaminated land adjoining existing settlements. Heavy metal pollution and acid water is currently at a level that exceeds the Romanian and international rules and conditions of the current toxicity led to intense pollution of rivers and streams in the area. Existing pollution will remain untreated if Rosia Montana Project does not develop or at least an alternative plan for future development. The project was planned and will be developed to meet international standards, implementing best available techniques and best international management practice. The aim is to ensure safe operation and environmental protection as a direct means of minimizing potential impacts and improve existing environmental conditions. The mining industry in Romania has declined considerably in recent years and still suffers a significant reorganization and restructuring process. Existing exploitation is subsidized by government. Gradual closure of this operation has already resulted in the loss of over 800 jobs, and the restructuring of another 500 jobs will have a significant social, environmental and economic impact on Rosia Montana, Abrud and the communities in neighboring areas. Among the promoters of the project is Rosia Montana Gold Corporation, Gabriel Resources Ltd. as the main shareholder. In 1997, SC Eurogold Resources SA, a joint stock company between Autonomous Deva Copper (19.31%), Gabriel Resources Ltd. (Canada) (80%) and three minority shareholders (Cartel Bau, Foricon SA and Comat SA, each with 0, 23%) was recorded for the purpose of research and exploration in the area. In 1999, SC Eurogold Resources S.A. changed its name to SC Rosia Montana Gold Corporation S.A. Rosia Montana Project has two main components: - The production activity of metal and technology used; - Management of environmental and social issues. Along with completion of the operation, the mine will be closed. The close of a mine is to make this place a stable and secure area for both residents and animals, in full balance
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with the ecology of the region and aesthetically improved. The projected program includes a post-closure environmental monitoring, to ensure that the exploitation of negative consequences will not take place. Closed funds required will be provided by a financial guarantee from Rosia Montana Gold Corporation to ensure that money for these activities is available, regardless of changes in economic conditions. The business plan provides total benefits for the mining project over $ 24 billion for Romania. Among observational, 1.8 billion will go directly to the state budget. The remaining $ 2.4 billion represents money spent in Romania for human resources, construction, electricity, materials, transportation, spare parts and others. These amounts represent a direct investment in Romania's economy and workforce will reach entrepreneurs and Romanian companies that will provide products and Services of the Rosia Montana Gold Corporation, during construction and operation. In addition to direct financial benefits, the Romanian state enjoys direct and indirect economic effects of the project. Thus the mining project will create over 2,300 direct jobs during the construction phase of the mine, 800 direct jobs during operation and 3,600 total jobs (direct and indirect) during operation. Logistics needed for the project, namely roads, infrastructure, homes, schools; public services are built by investor and remain to community. Also, Rosia Montana Gold Corporation will green the area both during the project and at the end. In addition, the company provides financial support for this purpose, since the beginning of the project. Closure and rehabilitation costs of the Rosia Montana Project are estimated at this time to 135 million USD according to estimates by independent experts. To obtain access to the land required for the project development, the company has developed together with international experts and local community Action Plan Resettlement and Relocation in accordance with the standards and policies of the World Bank and international best practices. So far Rosia Montana Project acquired over 80% of all properties in the residential area industrial project. The purchase was made only after negotiations with owners on a "free will to buy, sell free will." In addition to the relocation (possibility of buying a property in another location), the company offered residents two choices of displacement (opportunity to purchase a property in the two resettlement sites). This is essential in keeping the community and its social network. Of the total 794 households purchased: - 143 houses were empty; - 150 families chose resettlement; - 501 families chose relocation. Decisive for the orientation of the community options (relocation versus resettlement) were strategies of families living in the residential area proposed to be developed. Relocation option was guided by: - Pre-existing migratory tendency in Rosia Montana before the coming of the company: of all households purchased they were 143 empty houses, families who own these houses are long gone from Rosia Montana, favorite destinations being Arad, Timisoara; - Following this model, 64 families moved in Arad, Timis, Cluj, Bihor; - 227 families have moved Alba County and neighboring counties. In Alba Iulia, the company decided to build a housing estate. - 138 families have moved in close proximity of Rosia Montana with the desire on one hand to move into a better home, closer to the main road or neighboring towns to access to facilities and urban services but at the same time to remain between relatives, acquaintances, while having access to all current and future benefits of the project: job training program, support to open a small business, various facilities offered by the company; destinations preferred for this option were Rosia Montana villages outside the
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area proposed to be developed, mining project neighboring cities Abrud. Cāmpeni, Bucium. - Of the total households that have chosen for resettlement (498), 100 were inhabited by an elderly person who intended to leave to their kids. Option relocation was motivated by: - The desire to live in the city, in a new, modern type house and stay together with a part of the community; - Price per square meter built is subsidized by the company; - Modern infrastructure, high standards of living; - 125 families have so far chosen to move to a residential district built by the company in Alba Iulia. - 25 families currently contracted a house in the future resettlement site in Rosia Montana. The campaign "Save Rosia Montana" and the views of local residents are two different methods of promotion and manipulation, each and everyone fighting from its point of view. The first method fighting against Rosia Montana Project, the second method expresses the views and wishes of residents in favor of this project to open the mine so that they have jobs. Alburnus Maior association was founded in 2000 by residents and owners and opposes the Rosia Montana mining project proposed by Gold Corporation on social, cultural, environmental and economic reason. In short, the association opposes to: - Resettlement plan that will affect 740 households and 140 apartments; - Destruction of historical and archaeological heritage of inestimable value - heritage houses and galleries pre-Roman and Roman; - Using cyanide technology; - Large-scale extraction based on open pit gold. Conclusions Alburnus Maior association is the originator of the Save Rosia Montana Campaign, the largest civil society initiative in Romania, bringing together the 10 years of multiple actions, events and local positions taken, environmental organizations, churches, international organizations, heritage protection, academic and scientific institutions. Developed in the largest human rights movement in the country, Save Rosia Montana campaign is opposing to opening the largest surface mines in Europe. The reasons are many, opposing arguments distinguishing environmental, cultural, economic prospects and social impact strongly limited by the relocation and resettlement of the local population. Alburnus Maior association, coordinator of the campaign is a non-governmental organization based in Rosia Montana, which represents the interests of over 300 farming families in Rosia Montana and 100 families from neighboring Bucium village. Save Rosia Montana Campaign is primarily a movement actively supported by some 40 ONGs in Romania, Romanian Academy, universities, churches and public figures. Alburnus Maior association intends to assert initiatives and sustainable development of the natural and historic heritage conservation. In this regard were initiated two projects to promote tourism: Rosia Montana - Gold and Country Road Daffodils. In many interviews circulating on the Internet and local media, one can see locals that do not work in Rosia Montana mine anymore but they require help to resume their activities. Jobs are the main reason why some locals want to start the mining project. There are advantages and disadvantages, all in all, its still a win-win situation, on the one hand jobs created on the second hand government reaches its goal of mining, no matter what happens, the only problem is pollution that unfortunately wont let tourism flower in that region.
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Promotion and Manipulation Techniques Iasmina Iosim, Tiberiu Iancu, Diana Marin, Case Study Gabriela Popescu, Luminita Pirvulescu, Carmen Dumitrescu
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Nistoreanu P. şi col. Ecoturism şi turism rural, Editura ASE, Bucureşti, 2003, p25 2. Barbu Gh., Turismul în economia naţională, Ed. Sport-Turism, Bucureşti, 1981, p82 3. http://rosiamontana.org 4. http://rosia-montana.ro/ (tur virtual al Rosiei Montane) 5. http://turism.rosia-montana.ro 6. http://www.rmgc.ro/proiectul-rosia-montana/mediu/evaluarea-impactului-asupramediului-rosia-montana.html 7. http://www.rmgc.ro
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RURAL TOURISM POTENTIAL OF ARAD COUNTY Andreea Romana Tucudean1, Ioan Csosz2, Simona Martin2 1: West University “Vasile Goldis”, Arad 2: Banat`s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara, Faculty of Agricultural Management Located between the major ethnographic areas Crisana, Tara Motilor and Banat in the west being neighbor with Hungary, Arad County represents an area with multiple interferences. Geographical configuration, with plains that reach deep into the hills and mountains, with extensive river system dominated by White Cris and Mures courses with many and varied resources of the soil and subsoil and the favorable climatic conditions, offered yet in ancient times an ideal place for the establishment of human settlements. In addition to the diverse natural environment, another originality note is the variety of ethnic groups over time have settled and lived here with majority Romanian population. On Arad county territory it can be distinguish several areas of interest possible to be capitalized through rural tourism, differentiated between them depending on the specific of natural and human potential, on the types and groups of tourist resources, of ways of tourist potential capitalization, of the possibilities and quality of access infrastructure, namely: Mures Valley, Woods Moma Mountains Depression GurahonţHălmagiu. Keywords: rural tourism, potential, Arad County INTRODUCTION With an area of 7,754 sq km, Arad County has a rate of 3.65% from the total area of Romania, is the sixth county as stretching in the country. It notes: - Natural tourism potential (physical and geographical conditions) specific of Arad County sustain the development of rural tourism. The existence of varied relief, relatively balanced (dominated fields), witch decreases in altitude from east to west, to a temperate continental climate with oceanic influences (depressions Hălmagiu, Almas-Gurahonţ, Moneasa, Mures color) considerable extension of forest areas, the presence of natural reservations (mixed Hill nature Reserve Mocrea-Ineu of 107.2 ha, managed Romsilva SA nature Reserve Moneasa mixed) deontological parks (Mocrea-Ineu arboretum of 8 hectares, forming in Mocrea village with together with a manor a complex tourist attraction), the existence of mineral springs (in Moneasa carbonated water alkaline, ferruginous carbonated in the hills of Lipova) creates natural conditions with a direct positive impact on the development of tourist activities; - Anthropogenic tourism potential constitutes as another element of suitability for rural tourism activities and is represented by the ethnographic objectives (pottery production centers in Barsa, Tarnavita, costumes to Sicula, Barsa, Buteni, traditional folk customs such as Fair from Mount Gaina, Fair of kiss from Halmagiu) and the rural economy (water mills Radesti, Varfurile, Rosia); - Development of agro-tourism concept has prompted to some of the owners of rural homes to provide services in the field of tourism. MATERIAL AND METHOD To achieve this scientific paperwork the authors used various bibliographical sources, and other materials and research in the discipline of tourism, on which certain conclusions have emerged. - 243 -
Rural Tourism Potential of Arad County
Andreea Romana Tucudean, Ioan Csosz, Simona Martin
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION On Arad County territory we can distinguish several areas of interest, differentiated between them depending on the specific of natural and human potential, the types and groupof tourist objectives, tourist capitalization of their potential, on possibilities and quality of access infrastructure. Table 1 Prioritize interest rural tourist areas in Arad County Place in Tourist localities Places with tourist hierarchy potential not capitalized -with tourist potential - with tourist or poorly capitalized facilities 1.Codru Moma 2. Valea Muresului
3. Podgoria Aradului 4. Gurahont-Halmagiu
Dezna Lipova, Conop, Barzava, Varadia de Mures, Savarsin, Birchis, Petris Ghioroc, Paulis, Siria, Pancota Gurahonţ, Halmagiu, Varfurile
Moneasa Lipova, Conop, Savarsin, Petris Paulis, Siria, Pancota Halmagiu
Dezna Barzava, Varadia de Mures, Savarsin, Birchis, Petris Paulis, Siria, Pancota Gurahonţ, Plescuta, Halmagiu, Halmagel, Varfurile
Source: Arad County Council, Arad County Landscaping Plan - update final form - December 2009 Phase I Phase II - elements that make the development, p.103
Current tourism offer proposes: - Rural pensions: Siria Cladova, Minis, Julita, Halmagiu, Brusturi, Galsa, Paulis, Buteni, Cladova - Traditional crafts: pottery - Tarnavita, Barsa, Sicula, Almas, braided wicker Ineu Fantanele Beliu, naive painting: Brusturi, Halmagiu; - Curiosity: water mills -Brazii, Secas, Jacobean, Troas; - Places of worship: wooden church of XVIII-XIX (Obarsia, Corbesti, Rosia, Petris, Troas, Poiana, Magulicea) Traditional holidays: fairs - Girls Fair on Mount Gaina, Codrenilor Fair -Vasoaia; summer habits: Feast of New Bread - Pecica Beliu; autumn habits: "Grapes Ball" - Pancota; winter habits.
Fig. 1 Favorable areas for tourist and agrotourist activities Source: Arad County Council
Mirroring specific livelihoods in rural area of the county involves taken into consideration some issues such as: specific handicrafts and occupations and of course - 244 -
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gastronomy, the latter being the one that currently tourists attraction to this kind of tourim in many coutry locations. Main occupations of inhabitants The main occupations of the inhabitants of the Arad county villages were and remained agriculture and cattle breeding. Naturally, depending on the conditions offered from natural frame the share of these occupations is higher or lower. In the mountainous area of eastern County, gentle slopes with pastures always favored cattle breeding. It takes the form of local or sedentary shepherded. Animals are raised either in the owner farm or, during the summer it organizes a flock at the edge of the village. In some localities such as: Troas, Temesesti, Lupesti, Parnesti, cattle are moved, sometimes only in the summer, sometimes all year to the "hall". Unlike mountain area where cattle’s breeding is on first place, Arad Plain is par excellence an agricultural region. It is grown on large areas corn, barley, oats, rye, sunflower, etc. Specific handicrafts Among the crafts that were practiced and still are practice in Arad County it must be mention: pottery, weaving, wattle, wood, leather processing. These crafts have emerged and developed due to rich raw material that was in the area, but sometimes because represent the most important source of income for villagers budget. Specific traditions by localities The peasants of the villages are carriers of unparalleled riches of the ancient habits and customs, passed down from generation to generation. Diversity of relief forms, of the ethnic groups living in this County, and the influence of historical and ethnographic neighboring regions, have given rise to rich traditions continued even today. It notes in this regard, Girls Fair on Mount Gaina whose seniority is lost in the mists of ages, is an opportunity to encounter the inhabitants of five counties (Alba, Arad, Bihor, Hunedoara, Cluj). Gastronomic specific elements Gastronomic specific elements are traditionally prepared from pork meat, mutton, Hungarian-influenced dishes (goulash, potatoes with paprika), Ukrainian, stuffed cabbage, corn flour, roast in the test are just some of the many gourmet products specific geographic area of the county. CONCLUSIONS High agrotourist potential of rural area of the region has prompted the organization and creating adequate pensions and adequate tourist products. The picturesque of mountain areas, the variety of flora and fauna, mineral water and thermal springs, rich hunting and fishing combined with elements of architecture, folk art and folklore provides the possibility of practicing rural tourism. Accommodation rural spaces may consist of traditional buildings or apartments, independent, furnished, located in owner farm or its vicinity or that village. They may include secondary residences or outbuildings of rural household properly arranged. Rented on variable durations of time (annual, seasonal, weekly or weekend only), rural residences can be an attractive way to spend the staying. Accommodation in rural households has the advantage that they are embedded in socio-economic and cultural environment in the countryside. The degree of integration in rural areas depends both on the quality of accommodation offered to (traditional and typical site), as well as the reception given by the owners and the community in general. Rural tourism establishments from Arad County are located in categories 1, 2 and 3 flowers. In Moneasa Taut Paulis and are thus accommodation in categories 2 and 3flowers, totaling 97 seats (Moneasa and Paulis, each with 41 seats and 15 seats Taut); agrotourist units of 2 flowerslocated in Savarsin (14locuri) and Halmagiu (8 seats) and the 1 flower is located Dorobanti (township in the city Curtici) with 15 seats and 20 seats Conop).
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Rural Tourism Potential of Arad County
Andreea Romana Tucudean, Ioan Csosz, Simona Martin
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Buciuman E., Economia turismului rural şi agroturismului, Editura ProTransilvania, Alba-Iulia, 1999 2. Csősz, I., Agroturismul montan, Editura Mirton, Timişoara, 1996 3. Csősz I., Agroturism şi Turism Rural, Editura Mirton, Timişoara, 2007 4. Ciolac Mariana Ramona, Management în turism rural şi agroturism, Editura Eurostampa, Timişoara, 2009 5. Ciolac Ramona, Csosz I., Martin Simona, Marin Diana, Dincu Ana Maria, Ilie Alina, Bogdan Nicoleta, Development areas of rural tourism in Romania, Lucrări Ştiinţifice Zootehnie şi Biotehnologii (Scientific Papers: Animal Science and Biotechnologies), ISSN 1221-5287, Editura Agroprint Timişoara, vol.45 (1), pag. 435439. 2012 6. Ciolac Ramona, Csosz I., Pet Elena, Martin Simona, Dincu Ana Maria, Perspectives of agrotourism development in rural area Revista Agrobuletin AGIR nr.8/2011, ISSN 2066-6179, pag. 170-176 7. Paunchici Iasmina, Iancu Tiberiu, The role of public relations in promoting agrotouristic services in Romania, USAMVB, Facultatea de Management Agricol, Simpozion Ştiinţific Internaţional, ”Managementul dezvoltării rurale durabile”, Lucrări Ştiinţifice, Seria I, Volumul X (4), 15-16 mai 2008, Editura Agroprint Timişoara, pag. 21-26, ISSN 1453-1410 8. Arad County Council, Arad County Landscaping Plan - update final form - December 2009 Phase I - Phase II - elements that make the development, p.103
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STUDY ON THE SITUATION OF LABOUR FORCE ENGAGED IN ROMANIAN AGRICULTURE Brad Ioan, Tiberiu Iancu, Ana Mariana Dincu, Remus Gherman Banat`s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara, Faculty of Agricultural Management Work has represented active and decisive production factor of all economic activities thus remains the primary factor in the development and welfare of any human society. Labor is an input with a series of distinct features that distinguish it from other factors. These specific features derived from the fact that the work is performed by people, involves a set of motivations of human nature, which lacks to other productive factors. Keywords: agriculture, population, labor INTRODUCTION The structure of labor force, by economic sectors, services and non-economic activities depends on the economy type, its level of development and evolution and of productivity of social labor. In all economically developed countries the workforce is employed in a high proportion in services, tourism, trade, fiscal activities, and to a lesser extent in industry and in a very small proportion in agriculture. The share of labor force, employed in Romanian agriculture is well above the level registered in economically developed countries. Labor productivity is about 4-5 times lower than in industrialized countries. Employment in agriculture represents less than 5% of the total employed population. Households act as reservoir of labor for non-agricultural sectors. In the current period, when many sectors of activity "escapes" labor force, peasant household will still have to feed the unemployed labor force and to ensure economic means of life. Therefore strengthening, modernization and development of these farms is a key of strategic objective of the country's agricultural policy. MATERIAL AND METHOD The authors of the paper were used as methods of work: data collection, processing, analysis, observation and their interpretation. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Economic reforms have generated excessive growth of the labor force employed in agriculture. Highest peak of employment was reached in 2000 when the share of population employed in agriculture from total rural population was 34.6%, and we see a slight decrease in 2004 to reach 29.6%, and in 2011 reaching 27.1%.
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Study on the Situation of Labour Force Engaged in Romanian Agriculture
Brad Ioan, Tiberiu Iancu, Ana Mariana Dincu, Remus Gherman Table 1.
The evolution of main indicators of human potential of the Romanian agriculture (1990 2011) Year
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Total population
Rural population
Total employment population
Population employment in agriculture
thousands persons 23.207 10.598 10.840 3.055 23.185 10.633 10.786 3.116 22.789 10.422 10.458 3.362 22.755 10.349 10.062 3.537 22.731 10.303 10.011 3.561 22.681 10.224 9.439 3.187 22608 10.196 9.379 3.249 22.546 10.141 9.023 3.322 22.503 10.155 8.813 3.296 22.458 10.155 8.420 3.419 22.435 10.190 8.629 3.523 22.408 10.164 8.563 3.456 21.795 10.186 9.234 3.357 21.733 10.133 8.306 3286 21.673 9.778 9.158 2.893 21.624 9.740 9.147 2.939 21.584 9.670 9.313 2.840 21.538 9.660 9.353 2.757 21.504 9.669 9.366 2.768 21.469 9.646 9.181 2.764 21.431 9.632 9.156 2.896 21.354 9.627 9.138 2.612 Source: Statistical Yearbook of Romania, 1991 - 2011
The share of rural population in total population
The share of employment population in agriculture in rural population
The share of employment population in agriculture in total employment population
% 45,7 45,9 45,7 45,5 45,3 45,1 45,1 45,0 45,1 45,2 45,4 45,4 46,7 46,6 45,1 45,1 44,8 44,8 45,0 44,9 44,9 45,0
28,8 29,3 32,2 34,2 43,6 31,2 31,9 32,8 32,5 33,7 34,6 34,0 32,9 32,4 29,6 30,2 29,4 28,5 28,6 28,6 30,0 27,1
28,2 28,9 32,1 35,2 35,6 33,6 34,6 36,8 37,4 40,6 40,8 40,4 36,3 39,5 31,6 32,1 30,5 29,5 29,5 30,1 31,6 28,6
The high share of employment in agriculture and low use of working time and labor migration to Western Europe reduces the Romania’s the chances of economic recovery and create social problems in the host countries. On the other hand, depopulation of Romanian villages, especially due to the young population, delays the process of modernizing and increasing rural incomes due to economic diversification. Growth of employment population in agriculture was due not so much to the needs of agriculture, but especially as labor layoffs in other sectors of the economy.
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Activity
2002 8329 3015 2122 366 855 95 401 69 316 148 415 358 169
Total Agriculture, forestry and fishing Industry Construction Trade Hotels and restaurants Transport, storage and communication Financial intermediation Real estate and other services Public administration and defense Education Health and social care Other activities of national economy
2005 8390 2678 1973 463 1038 133 418 90 386 173 430 370 238
2007 8726 2465 1958 594 1200 156 478 109 486 209 429 394 248
- thousands persons 2009 2011 8411 8366 2411 2442 1774 1754 626 611 1138 1157 125 138 445 570 114 130 256 258 230 197 413 385 408 374 372 350
Source: Statistical Yearbook of Romania, 2008- 2011
A large proportion of total employment population in 2002 was employed in agriculture 36.19%, analyzing its evolution during 2002-2011 we can see that its tendency is decreasing, in years 2011 representing a share of 29.19% in total of employment population. Increasing unemployment in the urban area has forced a part of the population to seek employment opportunities in rural areas or simply to move from paid industrial activities to subsistence agriculture. Romanian agriculture has played the role of a "buffer" in terms of employment when the rest of the economy's performance has been poor. In Romania, the low opportunity cost of labor force has boosted agricultural production based on extensive use of labor force therefore involving a decrease in productivity. Therefore, land restitution and privatization of state farms have affected the labor force employed in agriculture and rural income distribution. In the following table (3.) we present the evolution of the average number of employees in agriculture. In the year 1990, 8.03% were employed in agriculture, of all people employed in this country, and in 1996 their number began to decline (6.12% of all people employed in Romania) reaching in 2011-2, 25% from total employees. Table 3. Evolution of the average number of employees in agriculture - thousands persons Specification Total, of which: Agriculture *
1990 8156 655
1996 5939 364
2000 4623 196
2003 4591 152
Total employees 2005 2007 2008 2008 4559 4885 5046 4774 144 125 105 110
2010 4376 95
2011 4349 98
* including hunting and forestry Source: Statistical Yearbook of Romania, 1991- 2011
The causes of decreasing the share of population employed in agriculture are: - Withdrawal of many elderly people from agriculture; - Income realized in agriculture, which are not attractive to young people; - Rural investments are relatively small - industry and small services - to absorb the younger workforce. Sharp decline of the number of agricultural workers was determined by transformation of property relations and decline of economic activity in the major agricultural companies. - 249 -
Study on the Situation of Labour Force Engaged in Romanian Agriculture
Brad Ioan, Tiberiu Iancu, Ana Mariana Dincu, Remus Gherman
This is a great loss for agriculture as the level of professional qualification of small holders is extremely low. At this point it is clear that only agricultural activities can not sustain rural population incomes and this conclusion applies in the case of Romania, as an EU member, state in witch the percentage of the population directly engaged in agriculture is 1.5 times greater than in the 15 old EU member states combined. We must find new ways to meet the needs of rural development and the political class must articulate a long term vision for the future of Romanian rural society and to develop a comprehensive policy, including institutional arrangements to facilitate the achievement of these objectives of perspective. CONCLUSIONS Following the results obtained in this paper we can draw the following conclusions: 1. It is required a staging of objectives and using the available resources with maximum efficiency, because Romania has no resources such the rich countries, and no senior management experience to create in a short time the best farming structures. 2. The share of population employment in agriculture from total rural population has increased significantly since 1990 when it was 28.8% to 34.6 % in 2000, then declined slightly in 2011when it reached 27.1%. Today, the rural labor force is engaged mainly in the agricultural sector, which is one of the major constraints of economic development of the country. 3. The share of workforce employed in agriculture in Romania, is very high compared to EU countries. The share of employment in agriculture will be reduced with the development of industry, services, etc.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Brad, I. – Management şi marketing, Editura Agroprint, Timişoara, 2007; 2. Sâmbotin, L. – Management agrar, Editura Agroprint, Timişoara, 2007; 3. Anuarul Statistic al României 1991 – 2011; 4. http://www.insse.ro.
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OPPORTUNITIES TO DEVELOP RURAL TOURISM IN CARAS AREA Ana Mariana Dincu1, Ioan Brad1, Cristian Minca2, Remus Gherman1 1: Banat`s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara, Faculty of Agricultural Management 2:University “Politehnica” of Timisoara, Romania In most developed countries, rural tourism is seen as an important tool for local and regional economic development for rural areas, as it creates an conducive environment for both business initiatives, as well as administrative. Some of the Caras area's tourist resources manage independently to generate significant tourist traffic. These resources are those that create "the image" of Caras tourist destination area and determine the tourist traffic in restricted areas (in addition to producing numerous benefits and adverse effects during peak periods). Keywords: rural tourism, potential, development INTRODUCTION Rural tourism and agro-tourism may be incentives for local development in many rural areas. They allow the dynamic of traditional economic activities and use of local cultural features, offering in the same time jobs and stopping the rural exodus. An important feature of rural tourism is that tourism is seasonal, practiced especially in summer, on weekends, with a lower stationary comparative with sun and beach tourism, feature that we find in the area analyzed by us. MATERIAL AND METHOD In this paper the authors have proposed some ideas to stimulate the development of rural tourism in the area. Working methods used by the authors of the paper are: identification and data collection, processing, analysis, observation and their interpretation. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Through the variety of landscapes, richness of natural heritage, the specificity of different ethnographic regions, vivacity of traditions and hospitality of the inhabitants, rural area fascinates everyone who loves traveling and had the opportunity to discover the culture of the area. Starting from the fact that, so far, rural tourism from Caras area was not conducted in a strategic frame, well-defined, we consider important in a first phase, the correct identification of objectives and foundation of a strategy to allow recovery of the region and improving existing gaps, the analyze of positive and negative aspects of internal and external environment of the area may influence the social and economic future evolution of the area. Further, observing tourist potential we proposed some ideas for developing rural tourism and agrotourism from Caras. One direction of rural tourism development must be characterized by at least two aspects: 1. First must have continuity, because generally, aimed at a horizon of time, for his achievement it is necessary the continuity of efforts. The effort of transition governments from Romania was oriented to highlighting the errors of previous governments, renouncing in many cases at the investments already made and redirecting of funding sources. Good initiatives must be taken also in the future, regardless of the political parties in power. - 253 -
Opportunities to Develop Rural Tourism in Caras Area
Ana Mariana Dincu, Ioan Brad, Cristian Minca, Remus Gherman
2. Second, a unified direction for tourism development must be closely linked to the development directions from in other industries, which provide the infrastructure for tourism services. Starting from analyzes and studies on the tourism potential of Caras area, it requires that the following tourism sectors has priority: - Mountain tourism; - Cultural tourism; - Rural tourism. Following the analysis of tourism resources in Caras area and of assessment of the actual condition of recovery, is assessed as optimal following directions of tourism development can best developed sectors mentioned above: ♦ promotion of a mountain tourism by upgrading the existing accommodation structures, solving problems related to poor urban utilities, sewers, mini-stations wastewater treatment, waste management. Finding new accommodation structures with high degree of comfort close to the main access points; ♦ encourage and stimulate the development of rural tourism by increasing tourist guesthouses in all localities from Caras Valley area, focusing on customizing offers by emphasizing the specificity of each village; Directions of tourism development of the resources from Caras area
promotion of a mountain tourism by upgrading the existing accommodation structures
encourage and stimulate the development of rural tourism by increasing tourist guesthouses in all localities from Caras Valley area
development of cultural tourism by promoting and introducing in the international tourist circuit of specific rural cultural values from the area
development and diversification of leisure offer
promotion of the traditional values of the region
Figure 1. Directions for the development of tourism resources in Caras area
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♦ development of cultural tourism by promoting and introducing in the international tourist circuit of specific rural cultural values from the area; ♦ development and diversification of leisure offer by promoting new forms of tourism: adventure tourism (rafting, paragliding, canyoning, free climbing), speotourism, water sports on the lakes that are not drinking water sources, etc.; ♦ promotion of the traditional values of the region, customs, folk, crafts, thorugh continued encouraging of old crafts practicing, creating a village museum in Carasova, creating a network of workshops and shops selling traditional products, continuation of organization of folk tradition in the area ("nedei"), staggered in time so that it can be received by a large number of tourists. Measures that should stay on the basis of coordination of rural tourism activity in Banat should be to oriented through: - Inventory of natural attractions - cultural - religious of Banat communes; - Linking the national, regional and local development programs especially those that respects/develops effective use of tourism resources; - Development of a real partnership between the public and private sectors and nongovernmental organizations; - Creation of model tourist centers and the development of others in different areas with state financial support and external funding; - Supporting rural tourism as a complementary form of classic tourism; - Encourage promotional policies, active internally and externally and in the next phase, editing a promotional catalog; - Development of education programs, professional training of staff in rural tourism involving all those certified in rural tourism services, trainers and teachers in the region; - bring the legislation with the EU rules. Another direction of tourism development is the promotion of Caras rural tourism product. Caras rural tourism product success depends on the efforts directed towards its promotion and distribution nationally and especially internationally level. In this respect, it is necessary to involve the central authorities, which shall coordinate in a unified vision, the measures to popularize the agrotourist supply externally, to intensify activities of participation on fairs and exhibitions, to contact great intermediaries from tourism, to attract their interest for this particular form of tourism, reflected in a generous offer, witch sketch a specific profile, by richness of the resources and dowry of customs and traditions, witch can facilitate the geographical and cultural integration in European area, by eliminating human borders and barriers of communication. Every community in Caras, and not only will have to strive to put account on the aspects that can customize rural tourism product from the area. Measures to support the efforts of the villagers can cover facilities both the granting of tax or equipment of household that provides hosting, providing advice and even initiate some form of education and training people and developing plans for the future development of tourism activities, consistent with overall economic policy, developing accommodation establishments taking into account local specific, in preserved intact cultural and architectural heritage. By their nature units involved in Caras rural tourism, and not only are small. For participants involved, the tourism will be a secondary activity and income received will be relatively small. It is unlikely that individuals have other than modest resources for use in promoting anything other than local nature. The most effective means of supporting Caras rural tourism products, new entrants into the tourist circuit is a membership to booking sistem. The next step aims to achieve competitive travel programs and their inclusion in the offer of specialized organizations.
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Opportunities to Develop Rural Tourism in Caras Area
Ana Mariana Dincu, Ioan Brad, Cristian Minca, Remus Gherman
Regional guides and brochures (promotional) are other tools that might be used to promote rural tourism product. Posters have been proven, over time, as message carrying information. In these conditions can make a poster to promote rural tourism product in two dimensions. All these elements of the promotional activity can channel also through promotional events, trade fairs, exhibitions and conferences. CONCLUSIONS Social developments and trends regarding the need of leisure the spare time in a pleasant and divers way have created the premises of organized development of rural tourism. The desire to escape from urban life has become a constant of stressful and busy life spent in this environment. Less exploited, but rich and diversified into other attraction, the studied area may be a new destination for rural tourism. The Caras area is a exceptional destination that worth every effort to his launch on tourism market.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Alecu, I., Constantin, M. - Agroturism şi marketing agroturistic, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti, 2006 2. Bretcu, A., Minică M. - Agroturism în Caraş-Severin, Analele Eftimie Murgu, Reşiţa, 1998 3. Csosz, I. - Agroturism şi Turism Rural, Editura Mirton, Timişoara, 2007 4.
Ciolac Ramona, Csosz I., Pet Elena, Martin Simona, Dincu Ana Maria, Perspectives of agrotourism development in rural area Revista Agrobuletin AGIR nr.8/2011, ISSN 2066-6179, pag. 170-176
5. Programul strategic de dezvoltare a turismului la nivelul zonei formate din judeţele Timiş - Caraş-Severin - Mehedinţi 6. Strategia de dezvoltare durabilă a judeţului Caraş-Severin 2007-2013 7. Studiu privind dezvoltarea turismului tematic în Caraş-Severin, 2009, Universitatea Eftimie Murgu Reşita, CCTDD, 2009
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PROPOSAL OF A MODEL OF FAMILY FARMS FOR EFFICIENT MANAGEMENT OF MANURE FROM SWINE Marin Diana, Petroman I., Ciolac Ramona, Petroman Cornelia, Lozici Ana, Serban Victoria
Banat`s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara, Faculty of Agricultural Management Raising pigs large farms, due to their gigantism and non-compliance of the provided norms for collecting manure and wastewater treatment, are a major environmental pollution. Therefore it must be urgently intervene in the improvement of technologies for the collection, storage, treatment and recovery of manure and wastewater, but also through our proposal for effective management of manure from the farms of different sizes. Keywords: farm, swine, manure INTRODUCTION Pigs raising is an ancient occupation of the people, having a decisive role in ensuring the meat for the world population (over 80% of the world population consumes and appreciate its qualities). In the last century, thanks to the achievements of science and technology in this area have produced important changes, has moved from small production to large-scale production, due to the concentration and specialization of agricultural production, perfecting it so, and systems of raising and breeding of animal in specialized units1. In our country there are conditions for the raising development of these species, especially because of a safe forage base and due to high demands that enjoyed products obtained by traditional processing or industrial of pork meat.2,3 The ultimate goal of any technology used in farming is to achieve a good quality production, competitive with other farms and at prices that guarantee a minimum profit. This will enable the investor to diversify farm products and increase capacity of the farm4. Under normal production conditions, respecting the technology of raising and breading provided for farm, economic results that are obtained can only be effective. Any deviation from the proposed technology through technological engineering project may conduct to a lower quality and quantity of production with associated economic repercussions. MATERIAL AND METHOD To achieve this scientific approach we proposed to implement a closed-loop model farm aiming at to deliver 250 annual heads of fat pigs and manure to be used as natural fertilizer.
1
Mantea Şt., Manualul crescătorului de porci, Editura M.A.S.T, Bucureşti, 2003 Petroman I., Creşterea porcinelor, Editura Mirton, Timişoara, 2002 3 Marin Diana, Cornelia Petroman, Ioana Bălan, C.Buzatu, Ramona Ciolac, Loredana Heber, Reproductive parametres of the ecologically exploited sows, Simpozion ştiinţific internaţional „Managementul dezvoltării rurale durabile”, Facultatea de Management Agricol, Timişoara, 14 mai 2009 4 Dinu, I., şi col - Tehnologia creşterii suinelor, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1990 2
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Proposal of a Model of Family Farms for Efficient Management of Manure from Swine
Marin Diana, Petroman I., Ciolac Ramona, Petroman Cornelia, Lozici Ana, Serban Victoria
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION To obtain the swine meat steadily during the year both for own consumption and sale we have designed for small farms (30 hectares) of pigs in a hilly area a semi-intensive farming model that uses manure as natural fertilizer effectively. In this respect farm management will have to pursue following reproductive and growth parameters: 1. Reproduction will be held seasonally through induction and synchronization of heat and calving to the sows, so as to achieve two sets of piglets / year, needed for fattening in semiintensive system. Breeding cycle will last: - Gestation - 114 days - sows are kept in stalls full floor joint, manure removal will be done manually: - Lactation - 35 days - sows will be housed in special stalls for two lactating sows and separate space for each for sows piglets to be fed with special feed (roasted barley, sunflower meal, minerals); - Waiting for sowing in stalls of 10 Head - 34 days. 2. Piglets weaned at 35 days and weights of 9 kg are moved to the youth department up to the age of 90 days and weight of 30 kg. Piglets will be displaced in fattening compartment that will have a full floor. 3. Next phase is the fattening and finishing up to 180 days, and weight of 110 kg in common stalls. In the table below we present production parameters that we took into account when we designed a semi-intensive farming model. Table 1 Production parameters taken into account Nr. crt 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Indicators
Values
Piglets born alive in average / sow / year: Piglets weaned alive in average / sow / year: Pigs fattened to 110 kg, delivered / sow / year: Average consumption of feed / sow / year: Average consumption of feed / kg gain between 1-110 kg: From sow consumer / year, returns to the weaned pig (1100: 17.5) From sow consumer / year, returns to the weaned pig (1100: 17.5) From sow consumer / year, returns to the weaned pig (1100: 17.5) From sow consumer / year, returns to the weaned pig (1100: 17.5)
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20-21 cap 18,5 cap 17-17,5 cap 1.100 kg 3,6 kg 0,62 kg 0,62 kg 0,62 kg 0,62 kg
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10
Average consumption per kg of body weight that also includes the consumption for queen (3.60 + 0.62):
11
14
Consumption of drinking water / day: - Lactating sow - Sow waiting + gestation - Youth in growth - Pigs in fat Manure / day: - Lactating sow - Sow waiting + gestation - Youth in growth - Pigs in fat Total feed consumption / year: 106,582 kg from which: - Barley (40%): - Wheat (20%): - Maize (30%): - PVM (10%): The total amount of manure:
15
Total water consumption:
12
13
4,22 kg
21 l 10,6 l 2,8 l 7,2 l Dejection 6,4 3,6 1,2 2,6
Urine 11,8 7,3 0,7 3,2
41 t 20,8 t 31,2 t 10,4 t 273 m³ 330 m³
16 Arable land for own production of grain Source: own dates
30 ha x 3 t/ha = 90 t cereals
No. of piglets produced per year 15 sows x 2 births / year = 30 births annually - Prolificacy 12 head - Birth 85% 30 x 12 x 85% = 306 heads piglets Table 2 The dynamics of the time according to the category they belong Period Days in category 15 XII - 15 I -
Category Breeding Gestation Calving Weaning Nursery Fattering TOTAL Source: own dates
08 IV - 08 V 13 V - 13 VI 07 VII – 07 VIII 06 X - 06 XI -
35 55 90 180
No. of piglets furrowed per series 15 sows x 12 heads x 85% = 153 piglets / series Fodder Piglets - 153 head x 6 kg / head = 918 Kg Feed / series Lactating sows - 15 sows x 5 Kg / cap x 50 days = 3750 Kg / series 1-2 days before calving 2-3 days after birth Gestation Feed consumption
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Proposal of a Model of Family Farms for Efficient Management of Manure from Swine
G1 G2 G3 G4
→ 15 x 3,5 x 30 → 15 x 2,9 x 30 → 15 x 2,9 x 30 → 15 x 3,2 x 24 ____ 114
= = = =
Marin Diana, Petroman I., Ciolac Ramona, Petroman Cornelia, Lozici Ana, Serban Victoria
1.575 1.305 1.305 1.152 _____ 5.337
Weaned youth (55 days) 153-10% = 137.7 ≈ 138 maternal mortality 1 head stall /16 138: 16 = 8.62 ≈ 9 stall Feed consumption 138 x 55 x1, 5 Kg / day = 11,385 kg feed / series D.C. 138 x 10 x 0.8 = 1.104 - prestarter 138 x 45 x 1.66 = 10.281 - Starter ____________ Total = 11,385 Fattening (90 days) 138 head nursery - 7% dead nursery = 128.34 ≈ 129
Feed consumption Phase I 138 x 60 x 2.3 Kg / day = 19.044 - grower Phase II 138 x 30 x 2.81 Kg / day = 11,633 – finisher _____ ______ Total = 30.677 Number of deliver fat pigs / series 129 head fattening - 1% mortality = 127.71 1 ≈ 128 Table 3 Feed consumption per series Category
No.days
Prestarter
Starter
Grower
Finisher
Lactation
Gestation
Total
Gestation Waiting 15 x 2,4 Maternity Nursery
119 34
-
-
-
-
4.185 1.224
1.152 -
5.337 1.224
35
918
-
-
-
3.750
-
4.668
55
1.104
-
-
-
-
11.385
Fattening Total
90 -
2.022
19.044 19.044
11.633 11.633
9.159
1.152
30.677 53.291
13.100
10.28 1 10.28 1 7.900
5.800
5.500
5.400
4.800
2.649
8.122
11.046
6.398
4.946
553
Medium 0,633 33.714
Price recipe Value lei Source: own dates
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In order to make rentable this family farm model of swine growth regarding rational using of manure coefficients we determined recovery coefficients of manure from swine, used as natural fertilizer on the 30 hectares of the farm, the data obtained are similar to those obtained by other researchers quoted malice. (Tab 4) Table 4 Recovery coefficients (%) of manure from swine Type of fertilizer Years from incorporation Fresh manure
1 58-63
2 18-22
3 5-8
4 0-4
Solid manure
72-78
10-15
8-10
0-3
Source: own dates 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Fresh manure
1
2
3
Solid manure
4
Years from incorporation
Fig.1 Recovery coefficients (%) of manure from swine CONCLUSIONS We conclude that solid manure from swine can be used as natural fertilizer with high coefficient of recovery in the first year because in the coming years their efficiency decreases due to the loss of nitrogen by aerobic or anaerobic fermentation activity.
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Proposal of a Model of Family Farms for Efficient Management of Manure from Swine
Marin Diana, Petroman I., Ciolac Ramona, Petroman Cornelia, Lozici Ana, Serban Victoria
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1
Mantea Şt., Manualul crescătorului de porci, Editura M.A.S.T, Bucureşti, 2003
2
Dinu, I., şi col - Tehnologia creşterii suinelor, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1990
3
Marin Diana, Cornelia Petroman, Ioana Bălan, C.Buzatu, Ramona Ciolac, Loredana Heber, Reproductive parametres of the ecologically exploited sows, Simpozion ştiinţific internaţional „Managementul dezvoltării rurale durabile”, Facultatea de Management Agricol, Timişoara, 14 mai 2009
4
Petroman I., Creşterea porcinelor, Editura Mirton, Timişoara, 2002
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MULTINATIONAL COMPANIES AS CARRIERS OF FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT MSc Marjanovic Darko teaching assistant, Faculty of Economics Subotica, Serbia MSc Ahmetagic Deniz associate in project center, Faculty of Economics Subotica, Serbia Multinational companies are the main drivers of the world economy and the globalization process, and therefore the most important drivers of foreign direct investment. The beginning of the XXI century is characterized by complex processes of world development in which the developed countries, multinational companies and the latest technology to dominate the economic and other fields. When we talk about foreign direct investment and their investment in a particular country, we think first of all the multinational companies that have the capital, technology and know-how to countries that do not have their own resources to finance development, but aim to attract foreign investment. The main motive of every multinational company to invest capital in a foreign country is a profit, a new market, favorable conditions for the use of resources, the benefits of the tax system, etc. To prevent delay in development, many countries offer multinationals a variety of tax benefits in the form of low tax rates, tax incentives and exemptions, and thus contribute to creating a favorable investment climate for foreign investment. Keywords: Multinational companies, FDI, Tax competition, Investments INTRODUCTION The rapid development of the globalization of business has caused an increase in competition in the international market. Number of organizations different forms be increasing according to the development level of the business. Starting from a possible approach and the level of market engagement, Keegen performed the classification of companies: national, international and multinational. However, in this classification, which is characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon area of most confusion relates to a multi-national company, as this term covers a wide range of participants in the international market, from national to multinational companies. However, if we ignore this view of things, we are given the opportunity to accept the classification of an organization that is now widely accepted in most parts of the world. We distinguish the following forms of business: national company bases its activity on the domestic market export company is a national company that sells products to the international market through its subsidiary, or perform licensing technology for use abroad; company of an international character, performs its activities in domestic and foreign market. The road leading to the international and the national export-oriented enterprises. International company based its strategy of growth and development on the equal treatment of national and international markets, as part of his activity at the same time on both. These companies did not matter the size of the market. For positive about business conditions, with sometimes more favorable conditions on the international than in the domestic market; transnational companies base their business on the capital of a country which is present in several countries. Multinational companies are all companies that operate on the principle of equity investments from several countries and have control over the property for at least two or more countries.
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Multinational Companies as Carriers of Foreign Direct Investment
MSc Marjanovic Darko, MSc Ahmetagic Deniz
These organizations have a well-developed network of its own affiliates, which are located around the world, through which they control the production, distribution of products and services. THE PROCESS OF FINANCIAL GLOBALIZATION At the beginning of the seventies of the twentieth century, the international financial system have taken very significant changes caused by changes of the economic power of the most developed countries of the world. Having lost a dollar convertibility to gold world currencies are definitely lost by then formal backing of currency in the noble metal. In response to the new conditions of international currency and financial markets have appeared numerous, previously unknown, financial instruments, whose far-reaching impact on the effectiveness of economic policy, especially in the three main segments - monetary, fiscal and exchange rate policy. In fact, this development is a kind of struggle between powerful financial corporations, with a high degree of freedom in their business policy and developments in the world economy, on the one hand, and state governments attempt to actively influence the direction of the business cycle and to drive economic growth on the other side. Globalization is a process of economic, social, cultural and political activity that crosses national borders, is reflected in the transfer of knowledge and information, the increased volume of world trade in goods, capital, services and energy, protect the environment and so on . It is increasingly common in the modern world of the past 20 years brings many changes in the world economy. Closely associated with the development of the communications that allow you to connect the world in different ways. Thanks to the connection until recently unimaginable scale, the world is increasingly common trend is the creation of multinational companies. Their share of the world economy recorded a dynamic growth , and reflect on the national borders of certain countries of the world. While on the one hand, the process of globalization the world is becoming "big yard" or "global village", is both more pronounced strengthening regional sense. The International Monetary Fund financial globalization is defined as a complex process that consists of four segments: technological level of equipment for the analysis, management and execution of activities related to financial risks; integration of national markets into global financial markets; minimize the differences between the financial institutions, activities and market segments in which it occurs and development of global banks and international financial conglomerates. Globalization of the economy is coming to the fore only in the tertiary and quaternary level of development, ie. in the post-industrial age. In today's world economy are undergoing numerous changes that are reflected in the changing role and importance of certain industries, ie. comes to its restructuring. Large and comprehensive watershed in the modern economy is experiencing an industry that employs many workers and participate in the creation of new values and is still the dominant industry. While developing countries are still at the beginning of the industrialization process in the economically developed countries of the industry restructuring and transition to postindustrial society, is widespread. As in the past, human society has moved from agrarian to industrial civilization, today we talk about the transition
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from industrial to postindustrial civilization, which is accompanied by the development of computer science and application of atomic energy. Financial globalization brings many advantages that are primarily available already prepared actors operating in global markets. From the standpoint of the debtor global financial markets offer many more possibilities to use savings achieved in other countries / regions at a lower cost. Compared to borrowing in the local market borrowers have significantly more possibilities to use a large number of financial instruments in international markets while simultaneously being able to secure financial transactions using derivative instruments. Financial globalization, indirectly, can lead to improvements in the financial system of the country of the debtor, as the local financial institutions are faced with foreign competition, increasing the level of knowledge, lowering costs and using more advanced technology. From the point of saving financial investors and lenders financial globalization allows a wider choice of investments in a number of financial instruments with dispersed structure of return and risk, allowing more efficient structuring portfolios to increase returns and reduce risk. THE STRUCTURE AND GROUNDS OF MULTINATIONAL COMPANIES IN OTHER COUNTRIES Multinational companies dominate in those industries in which the costs of research and development and advertising is very high. They have the advantages of each technology, image and reputation they have acquired, as well as the methods and techniques of management. Characteristically, the multinationals producing in many countries tend to specialize, and those that produce a small number of countries produce a wide range of products. Table 1 The structure of MNCs by country of origin Country Number of Country companies SAD 185 China Japan 104 South Korea France 37 Switzerland Germany 34 Netherlands Great Britain 33 Other Canada 15
Number of companies 12 11 31 9 49
Based on data from the UN estimate that there are about 37,000 companies that can be classified as a multinational company. They have about 170,000 individual branches spread worldwide and achieved total sales volume of 5.5 billion dollars. More than 90 % of the branches are located in developing countries. List of the 500 largest companies in the world shows that it is more pronounced dominance of U.S. companies, as was the case at the end of the twentieth century. There are two basic motives of establishment abroad: one is caused by the need to secure raw materials, and other needs of providing more customers. In the first case of multinationals in their investment does not take into account the level of development of the economy, but the capital invested in countries where there are natural resources and raw materials that are needed. The country has deposits of specific natural resources are present, as a rule, multinational companies that perform and control the exploitation of these resources. In the case of other motives, the company first established companies in developed countries,
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Multinational Companies as Carriers of Foreign Direct Investment
MSc Marjanovic Darko, MSc Ahmetagic Deniz
which have a large population and a large income that each of them has an average of, and later invested in less developed countries. But that phase have been through almost all the companies, so they started to invest capital and in less developed countries, starting with the fact of the conviction that in each of them there is a well developed middle class, which has the purchasing power to be worth starting your own business. Due to the rapid growth of investment and foreign direct investment was imminent, the research center of international political economy have become multinationals, which have become major players on the international economic scene as carriers of foreign direct investment. Looking at multinationals and their impact on international trade relations, it should be noted that these companies stand behind the interests of the mother country to countries that are investing capital. The use of new technologies and knowledge production through the use of external factors in the host country capital, it is necessary to achieve such production in the circumstances and to subordinate their own interests. Multinational companies aim to make the concentration of strategic factors in the home countries, while the economy of the country you are investing capital aims to integrate the global system of production as a source of cheap resources and markets for their products. THE IMPORTANCE OF FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT IN TRANSITION COUNTRIES Attracting foreign direct investment in most countries in transition is a necessary condition for increasing production and exports to a level that would enable the country's steady economic growth and a successful debt service. Accordingly, one of the most important objectives of economic policy makers, is to create an investment climate conducive to attracting foreign direct investment. One of the instruments to increase investment refers to the stimulatory fiscal environment in which the greatest impact on the company and investors alike a tax on corporate income. Income Tax Law is one of the most important tax instruments to stimulate economic activity in the local environment, but also to attract the necessary foreign capital. Various tax incentives in corporate profits have become a key determinant of tax competition to attract foreign capital. The European Union is now the most successful countries in transition that are no doubt made a significant inflow of foreign capital investors just giving preferential tax treatment of a number of incentives in corporate profits, but also by providing the necessary economic and social conditions. Since the transition countries are aware of the importance of foreign direct investment have for their rapid economic development, there has been competition for investment among these countries, which, among other things, approving and implementing various tax privileges to investors. In developing strategies and policies to attract foreign investment is necessary to take into account the specific characteristics and comparative advantages of the country , and when it must be borne in mind and purpose , growth and development, which is set strategy and policy in the economic development. Many countries have tried to implement such a policy to foreign investors, which allows them to control those sectors that have significant strategic importance for the development of the national economy. In doing so, they sought to provide the opportunity for the free entry of foreign capital in the rest of the production. For foreign investors in most cases this means a limitation, but for the country in which to file this creates conditions for the free development that manages the country. The strategic objective of the country in which to invest should be based on attracting foreign capital to those projects which were unable to finance, attracting technology and knowledge which they lack, export promotion programs and ensure that these projects using local resources. One of the main
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goals should be to increase employment and competitiveness in certain companies in the country, and the entire national economy. In order to achieve planned goals is necessary to build a climate investment strategies and policies aimed at attracting foreign capital, which must be based on the liberalization of economic flows, the opening of the domestic economy and the European integration. A prerequisite is a stable political situation and an environment that must be the guarantor of foreign capital inflows. The special role of the state to achieve such a legal framework that would guarantee equal treatment of foreign and domestic investors , foreign investors without bringing in an inferior position relative to domestic investors. It is allowed to state the reasons strategic interests of the national economy may impose certain restrictions or privileges to specific projects, but to the restrictions and prohibitions should be kept to a minimum. In the modern business environment foreign markets are not overwhelmed traditional exports for foreign direct investment. Dislocation of their production systems, multinational companies achieve the best supply of raw materials, energy and labor, and on the other side of their products or services sold on the world market in the most profitable manner. It is possible to distinguish several periods that are marked by investment booms: 1) The first jump of FDI followed a long oil crisis of the late 70s of the last century. As these investments were oriented primarily to manufacturers of oil this trend was short with a small volume of investment. During this period, after the United States, Saudi Arabia was the largest recipient of investment, most investors were the Netherlands, the UK and the U.S.. 2) The second jump of FDI is related to the developed countries, where the development of information and telecommunication technologies support this growth and enable multinational companies to easily and quickly coordinate their activities located in various parts of the world. 3) The third positive jump has led to the fact that foreign direct investment was marked by far greater value of investment flows, as well as the very high growth rates. This period was marked by a significant share of the developing countries, especially in the entry of FDI flows. In addition to the U.S. and UK , which have retained the role of the world's leading investor there is a geographic shift of the investment scene with the participation of several countries as investors (Germany, France, the developed Asian economies) and as host countries (China and the countries of Latin America) 4) The fourth jump of FDI is related to recovery after the recession of the early 21st century. The period was marked by a high share of developing countries, both at the input and the output side of the investment. Special emphasis this record investment wave given by the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India and China). Foreign direct investment as a form of foreign investment often take place in the form of direct investment in the construction of production facilities and the network to sell products in foreign markets. In addition to this type of investment, a growing form of an investment and joint ventures, as partners in addition to mutual benefit and common bear the risk of such an investment. Based on the characteristics, from the standpoint of investors, there are two main types of foreign direct investment: (a) American type of direct foreign investment multinational companies use their branches in foreign countries to produce and sell products, while expanding its network as part of a global strategy all with the goal of maximizing profits and increasing market share of the company in a given market. This type of investment is present in high-technology industries, and the task is to multinational companies through its network of branches at the same time reduce costs. In the case of a multinational company solely interested in the rapid growth and increase profits, and not the interest of the country to which invests. (market- oriented type of investment), (b) type of Japanese direct foreign
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Multinational Companies as Carriers of Foreign Direct Investment
MSc Marjanovic Darko, MSc Ahmetagic Deniz
investment - differs from direct investment company of other developed countries. Multinational companies, especially from Japan, are seeking to invest their capital in the country's environment and their industry in a situation when there is no comparative advantage in this country. For this land is important that the basis of technology, capital and knowledge they receive most of their assets. For Japan it is important that the best use of its comparative advantage as a superior technology, commitment to the company and knowledge to develop new technologies and new products. In this situation there is a better industrial structure and the home countries of multinational companies and the countries in which it invests, as well as the development of trade with the possibility of expanding the market. (trade-oriented type of investment). The task of Japanese companies is that capital investment help countries that are investing in the best possible manner to accept the knowledge and technology that is offered, all with the aim over time and take on the management and improvement of their development. Therefore, these companies are given the opportunity of a free trade while making the most of the comparative advantages of the two countries. Based on this we can conclude that Japanese guy supposed to direct investment should take multinationals in those industries where the country from which it makes no comparative advantage, whereas the American type is assumed to undertake direct investment in industries where the country from which it has invested pronounced comparative advantage. MULTINATIONAL INVESTMENT
COMPANIES
AS
CARRIERS
OF
FOREIGN
DIRECT
The beginning of the XXI century is characterized by complex processes of world development in which a multinational company, modern technology, especially the Internet and the powerful developed countries dominate the economic and other fields. The dynamic processes of scientific - technological innovation, creativity and continuous changes completely change the world. Accelerating the creation of the global economy, information and communication networks have created a unique area of the world. For multinational companies created a climate of successful business through liberal distribution of branches and the business opportunities around the world. The rapid development of the globalization of business has caused an increase in competition in the international market. Number of organizations different forms be increasing according to the development level of the business. By moving parts company in the country with cheaper labor , accessible legislation and the dynamic expansion of the domestic market, multinational companies retain the competitive advantage gained. The inflow of foreign direct investment and the arrival of the leading multinational companies, realize significant benefit developing countries. It reduces the massive unemployment, and providing modern technology, better organization, management, and facilitates exports to third markets. Multinational companies are companies that have their own facilities and other resources, in addition to the mother country, in at least one country. Such companies have branches or factories in different countries and usually have a centralized administration which managed globally. Very large multinationals have budgets that exceed the budgets of many small countries. Sometimes they can be found under the name of multinational corporations. The term multinational understood in the broadest sense, the transfer of certain activities outside the home country. For any company that has a plant abroad, it can be said that the multinational. The first multinationals occur in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Activities
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of multinationals are more related to the sale and purchase of the product, but the investment and production outside of their country of origin. The real impact of multinational companies began cross-border investing and managing these investments. This process began as part of the internationalization of economic processes in the nineteenth century. The dominant form of foreign investment at the time were portfolio investments. Were led by financial intermediaries, and included individual investments in shares or bonds originated by the across - oceanic base company. This type of investment is tied to the company's needs for raw materials such as coffee, oil, gold, diamonds, sugar, etc. Therefore, the European and American companies did everything they could to ensure their access to these resources. During this period there have been multinational companies such as British Petroleum, Royal Dutch Sell and American Tobacco. The importance of multinationals say the following facts: 100 most powerful economic entities, including individual states, as many as 60% percent of the multinationals, about half of the industrial output of the most developed countries of the world is formulated in multinational companies, estimated that a third of global production and over 50% of the planetary exports realized just multinationals. Table 2. Top 10 multinational companies in the world Rank Company Revenues (million $) Wal-Mart Stores 421.849 1 Royal Dutch hell 378.152 2 Exxon Mobil 354.674 3 BP 308.928 4 Sinopec Group 273.422 5 China National Petroleum 240.192 6 State Grid 229.294 7 Toyota Motor 221.760 8 Japan Post Holdings 203.958 9 Chevron 196.337 10
Profit ($ million) 16.389 20.127 30.460 -3.719 7.629 14.367 4.556 4.766 4.891 19.024
Assets ($ million) 180.663 322.560 302.510 272.262 225.388 399.101 315.268 359.862 3.535.277 184.769
Equity ($ million) 68.542 148.013 146.839 94.987 76.539 211.793 115.413 124.696 115.020 105.081
Looking at the table we see that dominate the oil industry, which only confirms what is their importance in the world economy. In the first place there is a manufacturing and sales of consumer goods (Wal-Mart stores). However, it was not always such a structure, as in previous years dominated by companies that manufacture cars, while at the present time starts to weaken their significance. You follow their example and companies in the telecommunications and electronics industry, as well as their significance begins to decline. All this left a space oil companies to strengthen their position in the global market. More specifically, the growth and organization of international production under the governance of transnational corporations has several implications for the organization of domestic labour markets: The conditions underlying firm-level competitiveness are changing, relying less on traditional natural assets and more on created assets, above all assets in the form of skills and knowledge. Such assets are therefore an important factor influencing the locational advantages of countries as hosts to transnational corporations.
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Multinational Companies as Carriers of Foreign Direct Investment
MSc Marjanovic Darko, MSc Ahmetagic Deniz
The importance of skilled human resources, as well as the proliferation of cross-border production linkages via foreign direct investment, subcontracting arrangements and strategic alliances and the adoption of complex integration strategies by transnational corporations create both challenges and opportunities for mutually beneficial relations between employers and employees. As the organizational scope of transnational corporations widens, both geographically and functionally, and as the mobility of capital increases, labour and governments must adapt more quickly to changes in the international competitiveness of their industries and firms. Increasing reliance on market forces redefines the relationships of firms, labour and governments with one another, including those in the areas related to employment and the workplace. Table 2. The strategies and structures of transnational corporations Strategy Intra-firm Foreign Degree of linkages affiliate type integration Ownership, Stand-alone, technology, Miniature Weak e.g., multifinance; replica of the domestic mostly uniparent firm directional
Simple integration, e.g., outsourcing
Complex integration at the regional or global levels, e.g., networks
Ownership, technology, markets, finance, other inputs; mostly bi-directional; subcontracting All functions; mostly multidirectional
Rationalized producer of one or a few elements in the value chain.
Product or process specialist; functional specialization
Strong at some points of value chain, weak in others.
Potentially strong throughout value chain
Environment Host country accessible to foreign direct investment; trade barriers; costly communications and transportation Open trade and FDI regimes, at least bilaterally; non-equity arrangements permissible. Open trade, technology FDI and related regimes; use of advanced information technology; convergence in tastes, heightened competition, low communication and transportation costs.
That one country was able to attract foreign capital must first create a favorable investment climate that will be created if there is a stable economic conditions, the political and social stability, a favorable foreign trade, customs and foreign exchange treatment of joint ventures, as well as available, reliable and skilled labor power and access to raw materials and other domestic sources of supply. Each country tries to offer the best conditions for conducting economic activity and investment. Particular attention is paid to the tax conditions and tax treatment of the company, on the way to base corporate income tax significantly expanded, while the tax rate is much lower that almost close to zero or even disappears completely. Consequence of this behavior is a significant erosion of the state tax base, and create a very
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"unfair" tax environment in comparison with the conditions of operations of the neighboring countries. CONCLUSION All countries undergoing the process of transition they want to achieve stable and long-term economic growth, which is based on increasing investment, improving the technological base of these countries in enhancing the competitiveness of their products in the international market. In transition countries where foreign ownership industry achieved good results and promote the overall economic recovery. Foreign affiliates or local companies connected with foreign partners, often defined as' “bright spots” East economy in terms of export performance, current level of productivity and speed reconstruction of existing facilities. Multinational companies are a huge market for its products in countries in transition and developing countries. All these countries tend to have conditions to attract foreign direct investment, as they have a huge market, the industrial base, natural resources and skilled and cheap labor force with experience in industrial production. All this is enough to attract multinational companies in these countries establish their affiliates, and through pressure on developing countries help build market institutions and assist the transition of the economy to market economy. Creating favorable conditions for domestic and foreign investment, a major challenge for all countries, given that increasing globalization and the pressure to be competitive in the business creating the framework and the need for continuous improvement of the general business environment and the performance of companies.
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Multinational Companies as Carriers of Foreign Direct Investment
MSc Marjanovic Darko, MSc Ahmetagic Deniz
BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Arsić, M. (2005). Međunarodno ulaganje kapitala, časopis Finansije, br. 1-6., Beograd. [2] Chatelais, N. and M. Peyrat (2008), Are small countries leaders of the European tax competition?,CES Working Paper No. 2008.58. [3] Davies, R.B. and J. Voget (2008), Tax Competition in an Expanding European Union, Oxford University Centre for Business Taxation Working Paper No. 08/03. [4] Dunning H. John, Zhang F. (2007), Foreign Direct Investment and Locational Competitivness of Countries, from the “Whither Competitivness” conference, Geneva. [5] Feld, L.P. & Heckemeyer, J.H. (2009). FDI and Taxation: A Meta Study, CESifo Working Paper No. 2540. [6] Nicodème, G. (2006), Corporate Tax Competition and Coordination in the European Union: What do we know? Where do we stand?, MPRA Paper No. 107. [7] Popovčić Avrić S., Đenić M. (2010), “Strane direktne investicije kao dinamički faktor svetske privrede”, Ministarstvo za nauku RS, Beograd, str. 198. [8] Voutilainen, T. (2005), Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) theories explaining the emergence of Multinational Enterprises (MNE’s) -- Who, Where and Why -Department of industrial engineering and management institute of strategy and international business. Helsinki University of Technology. [9] World Economic Forum (2008),The Global Competitiveness Report 2008-2009, Geneva. [10] World investment report (2008), Transnational Corporations and the Infrastructure Challenge, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, New York and Geneva, UN. [11] World investment report (2009), Transnational Corporations, Agricultural Production and Development, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, New York and Geneva, UN.
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STRUCTURING THE INTELLIGENT ORGANIZATION AS A FORM OF SOCIAL KNOWLEDGE Deniz Ahmetagić, Boris Saulić Faculty of Economics Subotica, University of Novi Sad Changes in the world economy caused by new technologies and globalization processes bring forth new structures of organization which are adaptable to the constant new demands of the environment. In such conditions as the aggressive international competition, we need to innovate a product, technological and business processes and change the attitude toward the most important elements of organization. Instead of land, funds and equipment, the primary role is taken over by knowledge as the irreplaceable factor. The optimal model of organization is the one which is adapted to the business moment, buyer and company interests. This results in the necessity of continuous learning of the adaptive as well as the generating which represents the initial premise of an intelligent organization which learns, along with the possibility to quantify the level of intelligence of an organization. Keywords: situation approach, intelligent organization, factors of the organization, intelligent matrix of the organization 1. INTRODUCTION Structuring of business organization is a persistent subject in the modern theory and practice. Efforts of Serbia to enter the EU show us the need to deeper analyze the organization and functioning of companies. Structuring is done in order to view the elements of a business organization, such as departments, parts, funds and functions and to realize a business politic, or in other words a business goal. By choosing this subject we have conceived the content by using departmentalization process and situation approach. For those reasons we will show how can we measure whether our company is „smart“, „intelligent“ or capable to fight for its place on the market. The way of looking at capital is changing and from the traditional „concrete“components (land, machines, capital, buildings, equipment, etc.) the main focus is shifted to the so-called „soft“ capital (learning, knowledge, implementation of new technologies, processes, procedures and business methods). The research in this paper, in our opinion, will give new impulses to the study of this exceptionally current organizational problem. 2. STRUCTURAL ADAPTATION TO THE DEMANDS OF THE ENVIRONMENT The existence and functioning of business organizations as organizational systems have several main characteristics, which are: achieving the goal, communication with the environment (inputs and outputs), development, efficiency, democracy, relationship humanity, ecological awareness, etc. In order to achieve the main function, business organizations (BO) function as open systems and adapt to the demands of the environment, in rare cases adapting the environment to them. Organizational structure, as the union of elements and dependency connections in the organization should (picture 1) adapt to the demands of the environment, its own system and its target function.
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Structuring the Inteligent Organization as a Form of Social Knowledge
Deniz Ahmetagić, Boris Saulić
Goals and assignments
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
Internal needs and assignments
Influence and the need of the environment
Picture 1.Elements of the organizational structure In order for the structure to enable the efficient functioning of the BO, it is necessary for it to be adequately formed, documented and its function planned, coordinated and controlled. So-called flexible organization forms are created along with modern structures, from once rigid and relatively long term structures there is a shift to networks, „pulsating“ structures, up to the so-called virtual organizational forms. The dynamic of change, caused by globalization, demands also organization forms which are adaptable to specific conditions, times, markets, competition, etc. That is how the so-called situation approach was created in the functioning of organizations, under the motto „there is no best organization“, rather that the optimal model is a combination of different factors. 3. SITUATIONAL APPROACH IN THE FUCTIONING OF BUSINESS SYSTEMS Modern day is characterized by the appearance by the growing number of small companies in the world, on one hand, and the growth of large business systems through various forms of organizational linking, on the other. This results in the fact that the development of small and medium companies is impossible or very slow without the existence of large companies. So, in Germany for example, several tens of thousands small and medium companies are closed every year, but at the same time an even larger number of new companies are founded. The lack of business development in Serbia is causing a drastic decrease and loss of industrial capacities, and so there is a different trend in Serbia. According to the available information in the ten months of 2011, there were 7.097 small and medium companies founded in Serbia, which is 12% less than in 2010 (News, „Danas“, the internet). In the same period, 11.067 companies were closed which shows a growth in company closure of 87,8% than in 2010. (Two thirds of the total number of the employed in Serbia work in small and medium companies). The situation approach is actually the condition of the own structure which is adapted to the possibilities and specificities to the business. Basis of this concept can be reduced to (entrepreneurship effort): - seeking business opportunities on the market (effectiveness), - realization of business in the best possible way (efficiency). Organization functions in accordance with the demands of the environment and its own structure, thus it seeks the optimal solution for the given conditions of business. This theory was based on the teachings of Fidler (1979) and it is related to the combination of two sorts of factors in seeking the optimal structure and function: - Organizational factors - Situation factors .
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Tudományos Mozaik 10. Oragnizational factors
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Job specialization
Groups and unit size
Centralization Decentralization
Situation factors
Behavioral formalization and conncetion control mechanism
Age and size of the company Technical system
FORM OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
Environment
Ownership, culture, social enviroment Strategy
Picture 2 Situation approach In this matrix (picture2) we combine situation factors (independent variables) with organizational factors (dependable variables), seeking the adequate form of the organizational structure for the given conditions – situation. Situation factors are relatively unchangeable (at least in the short timeframe) factors and in fact, the organization adapts to them. Here we will list the contents of these two groups of factors (Table1,2) Table 1 Situation factors Situation factors
Contents (description)
1
Age and size of the company
2
Technical system
3
Environment
4
Ownership culture Social ambience
5
Strategy
Age and size of the company is determined by the structure so that it has a modern structure, or in other words larger or lesser number of organizational units Technical system along with the technology defines all the processes and adequate structure Environment acts from the aspect of competition as well as from the aspect of the market, workforce, politics, etc. Social ambience and culture determine the level of democracy and relationship humanity. Ownership defines the key decision makers, structure, goal hierarchy, etc. Strategy defines the structure which needs to become the instrument of those goals and the condition to realization
Table 2 Organizational factors Organizational factors 1
Job specialization
2
Groups and unit size
3
Decentralization Centralization
4
Behavioral formalization and connection control mechanism
Contents (description) Job specialization determines the possibility of formality which is co-dependent to the level of specialization This aspect structures and defines the number of organizational levels and the number of organizational units In the case of wide decentralization we have the larger amount of organizational units, and with that more complex coordination Behavioral formalization depends on the fact whether it is routine technology or not. Connection control should be formed as a feedback process
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Structuring the Inteligent Organization as a Form of Social Knowledge
Deniz Ahmetagić, Boris Saulić
Here we have three problem areas: 1. It is necessary to explore and describe the organizational structures with unique terms which can be measured (performances) in order to compare the effects of different structure configurations; 2. How can we differentiate organizational structures (OS) one from another, with organizational factors (changeable variables) and situation factors (relatively fixed variables). 3. How can we connect: various structures (situations), behavior of organization members and effects (realization) of the target function by those OS? Goals of the organization and changes in the environment determine also different OS which give optimal results in given situations or current situation factors. Influence to the structure (scheme 1) can be expanded to the analysis of the following three problem areas1: a) influence of the size of the organization to the organizational structure; b) influence of the production technology to the organizational structure; c) influence of the environment to the organizational structure. We should consider these elements when forming the organization structure. 4. INTELIGENT ORGANIZATIONS INSTEAD OF RIGID ORGANIZATION FORMS Serious contemplation of the organization come into the primary focus of managers especially when it comes to a crisis. As the organization is made up of multiple elements, their optimal combination gives optimal business results. Man, as the basic factor of the organization should change the organization factors and himself, in order to find a new optimum and new quality in a certain misbalance. The only output is the change of man as the foundation of the organization In order for the organizations to create an advantage in the competition, they have to act quickly and with quality to the demands of the environment. This requires recognition of those demands as well as theoretical and practical knowledge to meet those demands. Those changes in the environment like the demand for product innovation, cost reduction, market expansion, etc. can be accomplished only by adequate knowledge to make such decisions and implement them before the competition. Knowledge as a potential, for the adequate reaction to the changes in the environment is created through the process of constant learning. Not going deeper in the problem we will address only two sorts and two forms of organization learning.2 Table 3 Sorts of organization learning Sorts of organization learning Content of organization learning Adaptive (single loop learning) Learning without changing the primary set premises – goals and strategy do not change (single loop learning) Generative (double loop learning) Learning with changing the primary set premises, seeking advantage over the competition (double loop learning)
1 2
See more, Organizacija preduzeća(2008) quoted work, page 76-91. Janićijević N. (2008). Organizaciono ponašanje, Datastatus, Belgrade.Book
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Forms of organization learning
Content of organization learning form
Learning before acting in reaction to the - From specific literature, seminars or from the business process (learning before doing) study system - From lab or field research - From experience of better men (Benchmarking) Generative (double loop learning) Learning with changing the primary set premises, seeking advantage over the competition (double loop learning)
Table 3 shows two sorts of learning – adaptive and generative. Adaptive learning relates to learning and expanding the knowledge, by relying on previously defined and adopted assumptions, the business philosophy. This learning is called “single loop learning”. The other sort of learning – generative learning is also called double loop learning because it explores new assumptions and changes existing premises, in order to find adequate advantages compared to the competition. The first sort of learning usually suits stable business conditions, while the other sort is important when the changes are radical and frequent and the business is unstable. The ability of development and survival of the organization in a complex environment depends on the quickness and readiness to adapt in extreme and internal changes. We will try to recognize how to design a learning organization and what is its architecture. It needs to have adequate human resources and motivational models. According to a large number of authors (Nebojša Janićijević, 2008) learning organization has the following nine characteristics (Table 5.): Table 5 Characteristics of the learning organization Characteristic 1
specialization
2
universal functions
3
operational variables
4
adequate control
5
lessened hierarchy
6
team work
7
communication
8
structure integration
9
environment information
Description here we see the principal of minimum specialization which increases learning and employee satisfaction ability of preforming duties for your and other organizational units should be developed, that increases various specialization functions standardization and formalization are minimal, a larger number of adequate work methods should be used here we have the balance of individuality on one hand and the control of the entire organization on the other speeding up of vertical communication and increasing the level of autonomy (horizontal organization) creation of inter-functional teams in the so-called “super-structure” with the implementation of new knowledge and creation securing communication between organizational parts both vertical and horizontal communication and coordination between individuals and organizational parts ensuring direct contacts with the environment and getting relevant information from the environment
Previous content indicates that the organizational culture of the learning organization is changing, so the management of human resources (employment, training and rewards) represents the main process of organization learning.
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Structuring the Inteligent Organization as a Form of Social Knowledge
Deniz Ahmetagić, Boris Saulić
5. CAPABILITIES OF MEASURING THE INTELIGENCE OF AN ORGANIZATION Talking about an intelligent organization means moving the interest point from the so-called „rigid“ elements of an organization (machines, equipment, funds, land, etc.) to the so-called „soft“ organization elements, primarily man and his work performance. Visually we could say that the whole or the most of Microsoft's capital goes home after work hours, and re-enters the company in the morning. Intelligence of a company can be observed also as the capability of advancement in its field of business, which can be analyzed (intelligent process in the company) through: - stored data/information - knowledge of employees and - external information. This indicates that a revision or a transformation of the business should be done before it is too late. First reaction of the intelligent organization, when profitability is destroyed, is to find facts which caused that to happen! If our merchandise or service is not purchased by a financially capable buyer, if we do not have a market, we cannot speak about an intelligent company. We will address nine factors which indicate the success of business transformation: - Strong attitude of the need to transform the business; - Defining a thought-out concept of progress with clear and defined goal; - Honest activity and confronting the current situation (without beautification); - Defining and speeding up the process with time defined plan of progress; - Taking care that the top management is alert from the start, with sense in their activity and behavior; - Showing of stage accomplishment and partial success; - Defining all the relevant indicators for target value comparison from the start; - Growth of change should be supported by a master plan and control of revenue; - Objectivity and neutrality in the concept approach is necessary, so external cooperation and advisement is recommended. Picture 3 shows three possible scenarios for the selection of business strategy in order to properly position oneself on the market and function according to target goal as an intelligent company
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EXISTING MARKETS
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NEW MARKETS
SCENARIO 1
NEW AND EXISTING MARKETS
NEW MARKETS
Tudományos Mozaik 10.
MARKET EXPANSION
NEW MARKETS ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY
NEW MARKETS NEW TECHNOLOGY (often high risk, great possibility)
MARKET EXPANSION ADDED TECHNOLOGY
MARKET EXPANSION NEW TECHNOLOGY
SCENARIO 2
CURRENT SITUATION (comoditty, primary price battle)
CURRENT MARKETS NEW TECHNOLOGY
SCENARIO 3 CURRENT MARKETS ADDED TECHNOLOGY
CURRENT TECHNOLOGY
NEW AND EXISTING TECHNOLOGY
NEW TECHNOLOGY
Picture 3. Portfolio market / technology These three presented strategic choices are target oriented variables: - go for completely new markets - go for market expansion and added technology and - go for existing markets and introduce new technology. In this portfolio we investigate alternative business fields, which is the first process in proving the intelligence of an organization. Organization intelligence (picture 4) is based on permanent learning, but also on the remembering and implementation of that knowledge in the realization of the target function. Organization intelligence
Organization learning
Organization learning
Organization learning capability
Capability for formal learning
Organization knowledge
1
Declarative organization knowledge
2 Capability for informal learning
1. formal learning
3
Organization memory
1
Declarative organization memory
2 3 Procedural organization knowledge 2. informal learning
Procedural organization memory
1. side learning
Picture 4. Organization intelligence A logical question comes to mind – how can we measure the level of intelligence of an organization? Researchers from Germany give an example of such learning through the „intelligence matrix“ which we can see in picture 5 - 281 -
Structuring the Inteligent Organization as a Form of Social Knowledge A Response capability
1 Market / How quickly Compe- and in what degree do you tition
react to the new products of the competition?
B C D Problem solv- Capability of Memory ing capability learning/innovation/ creativity How quickly and in what degree do you learn from the market and the competition?
1 2 3 4 5 2 Customers (Buyers)
Do you respond quickly and fully to a question?
Deniz Ahmetagić, Boris Saulić
1 2 3 4 5 Do you know your customers problems and do you solve them quickly and to the customer satisfaction?
How fast and in what degree do you learn from your customers?
E Emotional intelligence
What are your client's contacts like to the relevant unions?
1 2 3 4 5 How quickly can you have information about your customers in the past as in what you delivered them?
Are your relations to your customers trustworthy and open?
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Do you learn the production problems in time and do you solve them quickly?
3 Products
Are your products special or ordinary? ("metoo")
Can you revise your product development after you identify the carriers of know-how?
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 4 Processes
Are you informed (questioner) with the current process management (e.g.: sales process or supply process)?
Can you easily Do you fix your recognize the processes in a process probsystematic way? lems and solve them quickly and completely?
Do you have quickly accessible documented solutions form the past ("Best practice")
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 5 Coworkers
Does the management have complete answers to the employee's questions?
Do you know your coworker's personal problems and do you help them in dealing with them?
Is dynamic culture of the learning organization present and is it advanced, along with the common opinion of all coworkers?
Do you facilitate the creation of systematic knowledge between coworker generations?
Does a single firm connection of normal communication between the company and the employees exist?
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Picture 5.Intelligent matrix of an organization
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Horizontally, matrix sets five characteristics or components of knowledge, memory and applied intelligence in decision making: • Response capability • Problem solving capability • Capability of learning/innovation/ creativity • Memory and • Emotional intelligence. By answering the questions, they are scored by quality and we can judge the intelligence level of an organization in the final score. This is one possibility which gives us the push to realize this matrix in our own companies. The relevant demands of the environment, which are characteristic for the specific company and its position in the business, natural and social environment, should be inserted into the matrix. In order to classify the answers quality there is a key (Table 6): Table 6 Scoring key number value 1 2 3 4 5
Organization score Insufficient Sufficient Satisfactory Good Very good
Explanation Far below the average Below the average Same as competition Above average Leader in the market
This table helps us roughly estimate the position of our organization in its environment, so we can work on its better structuring. 6. CONCLUSION Globalization and technological changes effect the structuring of organization in order to respond to the changes in the environment. Organization structures are no longer rigid and situation approach in one matrix combines organization and situation factors in order to build the organization structure in an optimal way. Global market is enhancing the competition and demands constant battle for survival and development. Traditional organization structures give way to the knowledge organizations (learning organization) which have a number of characteristics like: specialization, less hierarchy, communication, team work, etc. So-called intelligent organization changes the access to the capital, so instead of the current view of funds, equipment, land, etc. the focus is transferred to knowledge as the most important resource. Article is also about considering the characteristics of the intelligent organization, which shows some of the possibilities for measuring the intelligence level of an organization (IQ-organization). Analyzing one intelligence matrix we can see the general score of intelligence, within the business or competition. This paper indicates the needs for research in order to structure the so-called intelligent organization, or the organization which constantly learns, in the right way.
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Structuring the Inteligent Organization as a Form of Social Knowledge
Deniz Ahmetagić, Boris Saulić
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Ahmetagić E., Harmath P.(2009), Projektovanje organizacije, The Faculty of Economics Subotica, Subotica . page 129-130. Book 2. Ahmetagić E., Pavlović N.(2011), Organizacija preduzeća, Čikoš, Subotica, page 125-138. Book 3. Ahmetagić E.(2008), Organizacija preduzeća, The Faculty of Economics Subotica, Subotica. Book 4. Janićijević N.(2008), Organizaciono ponašanje, Datastatus, Belgrade.Book 5. Magazine "New management" 7-8/2010. Zürich, Switzerland. Journal 6. Petković M. (1991), “Dizajniranje organizacione strukture”, Poslovna politika, april, pages 52-57. Journal article 7. Todosijević R.(2009), Strategijski menadžment, The Faculty of Economics Subotica, Subotica, page 36.Book 8. Šušnjar G.(1995), Nauka o radu i organizaciji, The Faculty of Economics Subotica, Subotica, page 245.Book
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DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES OF ROMANIAN SPA TOURISM Tabita Hurmuzache, Iancu Tiberiu, Iancu Mihaela, Andrea Feher, Cosmina Toader, Remus Gherman, Dana Sambotin Banat`s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara, Faculty of Agricultural Management Spa tourism is a specific form of tourism that has seen, especially in last decades, a significant development, along with stress increasing, professional diseases and those caused by the rhythm of modern life from urban areas. Economic and social implications that spa development generates, both at macroeconomic and microeconomic level, positioned him among the most important forms of tourism. INTRODUCTION Economic growth and evolution of living conditions of modern man brings, besides the positive aspects, negative aspects such as: increased stress, qualitative and quantitative supply imbalances, and increased pathogenic action of the environment on the human body due to physical and chemical pollution, which negatively impact the spa of the population. The evolution of global economy, and cybernetic industrialized society from today and the effects they have on human health, causes a growing number of tourists to choose for a holiday a spa resort. Travel for treatment and recreation are among the main tourist destinations. In last decades, through its major economic and social effects, spa tourism has become a major segment of international tourist market, through which focuses important human and material resources, with deepening involvement of science and technology, of provision of some complex tourist and a medical services with a high quality level, called to satisfy vital wishes of modern man, determined by changes of living conditions and spa of the population. MATERIAL AND METHOD To make a fair radiography of Romanian spa tourism we undertook a statistical analysis of data’s on the issue addressed, a current problems but also one that will be topics for future research. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Spa tourism is a specific form of tourism that has seen, especially in last decades, a significant development, along with stress increasing, professional diseases and those caused by the rhythm of modern life from urban areas. It is characterized by a number of features arising from the complexity of the content and its activity. In the further pages we will try to highlight these features. An important feature of the spa tourism, which clearly distinguishes it from other forms of tourism and stays on basis of one classification of forms of tourism, is travel motivation. In the spa case these is spa care (treatment) which are carried out every day, according to a timetable, using a wide variety of factors and applying a variety of procedures. Action area of spa tourism is very wide and concerns: - prophylactic cure that, unlike other types of treatment have a much broader area, because it addressed to healthy and apparently healthy people with predisposing factors through disease, from the internal or external environment. To these it is added the fact that living habits, mismanagement of leisure time, poor food hygiene, emphasizes the need to develop this side;
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- therapeutic cure used to treat, using natural factors, a wide range of affections, namely: musculoskeletal disorders, respiratory, digestive, gynecological, renal, hepatobiliary, cardiovascular, skin, nervous system, etc.; - healing cure used for certain forms and stages of disease that produces disability to work, functional impairment and potentially disabling (arteritis, peripheral atherosclerosis, and musculoskeletal disorders such as rheumatism). From the many forms of tourism that can be practiced, spa tourism is the most valuable, because recovered completely natural resources and natural healing factors available to a country or area. Also spa tourism based on permanent potential, of a high complexity, which is practically inexhaustible, his capitalization being independent of weather conditions. This feature generates another feature of the spa tourism namely that does not show significant seasonal concentration, being the only form of tourism that relies on a permanent high potential complexity. In practice is recorded greater concentration of demand during the summer due to favorable weather conditions, which determines the holidays planning priority in this season. Then when the motivation of spa tourism practicing is spa care, the length of stay is greater. This feature of spa tourism concern in the fact that, according to the doctor's recommendation, the cure is a multiple of seven days and can reach up 18-21 days. Current trends manifested in the world have led to the emergence of new tourism products that are characterized by a shorter duration of stay, sometimes only 3 days. To this have contribute other causes too such as the emergence of new incentives and fragmentation of holiday. Given these tendencies at the demands for spa tourism level, it tried to adapt by developing tourism products on short term: 3-5 days for busy people, businessmen and even employees. These programs have as purpose to restore and beautifying body. Broad diversification of products is designed to attract a lot more customer segments. The possibility of achieving a spa cure all year round, but also the long duration of sejur stay, have determined spa resorts development by the emergence of many and varied activities of production, commercial and specific services of human settlements that drew the creation of some urban functions. Currently the specialists consider that about 60% of the resorts have become cities in the true sense of the word, ensuring a balance between urban and tourist functions requiring a careful management planning process. Spa tourism is one of the few forms of tourism that capitalizes, largely technical progress both at modern medical equipment that are a priority for this type of tourism development and at other categories of equipments (accommodation, food, entertainment). Facilities misalignment to the new global tendencies can lead to isolation of a spa area, regardless of the quality of existing natural resources. Scientific research contributes to increasing the efficiency of treatments and their recognition in the medical world. Romanian spa offer, through the diversity of natural healing factors that enable the treatment of a wide range of affections, superior capitalizing of this can determine the development of spa tourism from our country. Spa resources are the crucial component of the supply, their quantitative and qualitative characteristics determining the mode and level of organization and planning of structures needed to their capitalization. Due to economic development in the transition to a market economy period, began in 1990, accommodation, food, therapy and recreation establishments have changed. In accommodation establishments from spa tourism has been registered a different evolution from all the country. The revenue from tourism, respectively spa tourism were becoming smaller in relation to costs, limiting the possibility of activity self-financing. In conditions of loans with extremely high interest and declining demand, investment decision for the development of spa offer became a difficult act, as long as their financial re-
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sources were insufficient to support current activities and the preservation or degradation of existing structures. The effects are observed in the evolution of tourist accommodation establishments in 1990-2010, Figure 1. After an increasing in 1991 compared to 1990 of the number of tourist units, both of those across the country, as well as those of spa resorts, on all the country has followed a total decrease with 17.5% in 1993 and a return in 2004, trend maintained even today. In 2010 there were a total number of 5,222 accommodation units, from which 386 are spa resorts. On the other hand, the number of units from spa resorts has decreased by 14% in 1991 until 1993, in 1994 has increased with 9%, after which it decreased almost continuously. In 2010 the number of accommodation units, corresponding for spa tourism, represented only 72.15 % from those existent in 1990. 5003
413 386 377 382 372 377 369 360 356 347 367 400 501 535
2010 2008 2006 2004 2002 2000 1990 0
1000
5222
5095
4840
4694 4226 3900 3567 3332 3266 3121 2905 3213 2000
3000
4000
establishments of touristic reception
4710
5000
6000
establishments spas
Figure 1. The evolution of tourism structures with tourist accommodation function The structure of accommodation units by types reflects the outcome of current development. At national level, the spa units, we can see that the highest weight have hotels, villas, motels and urban boarding houses that together hold 77.73% of the total accommodation units from Romania. The largest share has tourist villas, holding more than 37.43% of all tourist accommodation establishments. On the following position are hotels holding 31.15% from accommodation establishments. On a good position are located urban boarding houses with 9.16%. The rest, in small proportions, is divided from other types of accommodation. Hotels 3,5 1,57
Motels 2,09 Touristic boarding houses 31,15
38,73 1,83 9,16 4,7
7,27
Campings and houselet type units Agro-touristic boarding houses Touristic villas and bungalows Touristic chalets School and pre-school camps other units
Figure 2. Existing accommodation capacity in spa resorts on types of units, 2011
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Development Strategies of Romanian Spa Tourism
Tabita Hurmuzache, Iancu Tiberiu, Iancu Mihaela, Andrea Feher, Cosmina Toader, Remus Gherman, Dana Sambotin
The high percentage of tourist villas from resort area can be explained by the fact that the investments and expenditure of this type of accommodation units are lower, their maintenance into service and even privatization is easier to do. Important good running of the tourist process are all forms of tourist accommodation, but for such an area, villas and hotels (about 70%) are those which give tourists safety, appropriate price for services offered and prevail in number. Most expressive indicators used to characterize the dynamics of tourist traffic in resorts are: number of tourists, number of nights and average length of stay. Starting with 1990 the number of tourists arriving in spa resorts declined, reaching in 2010 to represent 70.07% from the values recorded in 1990. An important factor that determined this development is the decrease of purchasing power of the population in Romania, due to increasing low income relative to the price jump. 1200 1000
48
800
46 54
43
600
33
25 25
36 36 27 23 33 37 45 36
699 696 650
588 653 663 601 637 637 614 666
706 701 617 546
1998
2007
400
22
1992
1008
200
romanian tourists
2010
2009
2008
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1996
1994
1990
foreign tourists
Figure 3. Evolution of the tourist arrivals in accommodation units from spa resorts Under these conditions the number of Romanian tourists who arrived in spa resorts (Figure 3.) have a very high percent, 96.12 in 2010, from total tourists. Starting from 2007, there is a decrease of tourists number arrived in spa resorts, both Romanian and foreign. Preferred units from most tourists are hotels, which occupy in tourist’s preferences about 81.2% of total arrivals. High preference of tourists for hotels can be attributed on tourist habit with this type of units, which gives the concept of safety and comfort. On the other hand, due to the fact that the treatment units are included inside of hotels and not of other types of units, which makes the tourist to prefer this kind of accommodation. The next units preferred by tourists are tourist villas occupying about 8.99% of the total arrivals. Preference for tourist villas can be attributed to the low cost of accommodation, on the one hand, and on the other hand, the villas give privacy and of course, peace. Regarding the category of comfort tourist’s preference headed to two-star category, which attracted nearly 3/4 of the arrivals. Romanian tourists arrived in accommodation units have expressed their preferences for a two-star category (almost 74%), this category represents a balance between price and comfort. The next category is that of one star, this category attracting nearly 14.17% of Romanian tourists, according to purchasing power. Foreign tourists arrived in spa resorts have preferred, like Romanians the 2 stars category (67.82%), but over 20.42% chose 3 star hotels at the expense of a one star. In spa resorts the highest average length of stay is recorded in hotels, here tourist spent in average 9.2 days. Other units that have recorded high average length of stay are tourist villas with 4.8 days-tourist.
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1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2010 2011
10 8,5 8,65 8,2 8,37 9 8,1 7,97 7,96 7,7 7,74 8,9 7,3 7,2 7,12 8 8,2 7,97 7,8 7,9 8,1 7 7,72 7,3 6,9 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Figure 4. The evolution of the average length of stay in spa resorts Romanian tourists spent the most time at hotels (9.5 days-tourist), the following preferred unit is tourist villa, with a average length of stay of 4.9 days. Foreign tourists chose to spend most time in hotels and hostels (4.3 days tourist). The evolution of indices used to characterize the dynamics of tourist movement in spa resorts during 1990-2010 periods is worrying. In 2010 the average length of stay decreased from 6.9 days, a decrease of 14.82% compared to 1990. Tourist movement in spa resort has known a significant decreases both the number of tourists arriving and the number of overnight stays. Romanian tourists have recorded the most significant decreases in the two indicators, due to the economic situation and poor services. In terms of structures chosen for sejur stay, we can say that the preferred units of Romanian and foreign tourists were hotels, followed by tourist villas and as comfort level Romanians preferred units a one and two stars, while foreign tourists those of two and three stars. Relaunch spa tourism from Romania must represent for those involved in the organization and development of this tourism a major objective. A strategic recovery of Romanian potential of spa tourism will allow repositioning of its on domestic and international market. The success of this action depends on the involvement of decision factors from macro and microeconomic level, and social and economic impacts will be significant, not only for Romania, but also for other EU countries. Romanian spa tourism development can be done not only by remodeling existing resorts, but also designing some new spa tourism products. Such a project will consider the offer and existing trends in thermal spas from countries with tradition from European Union, adapting them to the conditions and needs of the Romanian spa tourism. Development strategies of spas in our country should have in mind the possibility and opportunity of creating resorts with complex character, versatile, both by converting the existing ones in this direction, according with proposed strategies, but also by designing through this vision for resorts which will be arranged in the future. The complex character can be created, on the one hand, by providing dual functionality summer-winter and provision of recreational resources specific to the two seasons, and on the other hand, by promoting offers that combine two or more forms of tourism, according to existing resources (welfare treatment, meetings, winter sports, tourism business, scientific, cultural) in order to mitigate seasonality and to attract various segments of tourists.
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Tabita Hurmuzache, Iancu Tiberiu, Iancu Mihaela, Andrea Feher, Cosmina Toader, Remus Gherman, Dana Sambotin
CONCLUSIONS The spa resorts of the future from Romania will have success, in European integration perspective, if they manage transformation by using the proposed strategies in modern health and welfare centers witch capitalize the tremendous potential of natural healing factors. In order to meet the market requirements from the spa tourist market is necessary creation of multifunctional tourist resort by broadening and diversifying of resorts profile, alongside with the emergence of new profiles: removing stress, re-shaped, salon, thalassotherapy, prophylaxis. The new products will be supported by an aggressive promotion. Although there are a variety of spa tourism service providers who will set their promotion strategies, depending on the objectives and the markets concerned, we consider it appropriate conduct of a uniform promotional policy at macroeconomic level, witch support the whole Romanian tourism, especially in foreign markets.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Bran Florina şi colaboratorii - Turismul rural – modelul european, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti, 1997 2. Minciu, Rodica - Economia turismului, Editura Uranus, Bucureşti, 2005 3. Stănciulescu Gabriela - Managementul operaţiunilor de turism, Editura All Beck, Bucureşti, 2002 4. Anuarul Statistic al României, 2012
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Abstracts Facts and beliefs about foreign currency loans Levente Kovács Due to the role of the banking sector in the breakout of the economic crisis, and the public funds used for banks’ bailout – even though these were returned meanwhile – much revulsion has been outcropped against the banks and bankers. In Hungary it can most sightfully be seen regarding foreign currency loan debtors, which also bears the support of the media and certain political forces due to its popular nature. The home loans, indeed especially the retail FX mortgage loans, cause problems for a significant part of the society, thus this issue is necessary to be dealt with. The problem is complex, the data may be well interpreted from more points of view thus discernment and acknowledging the facts is inevitable, as well as filtering out the unjustified statements of certain mediaeconomists and interest pools. This study takes to clarify some parts of it. SAP in Domestic Businesses and the Hungarian Higher Education Judit Balázs, Ferenc Erdős In 2013 everybody knows the SAP abbreviation, because we have to meet with the world’s most well-known enterprise resource planning system in different ways: during our work, in the form of job advertisements or in the field of education. This dynamically developing and expanding German enterprise resource planning system is able to „renew” itself every day in order to find solution for the problems of changing economic processes or to help the companies to maintain their competitiveness and profitability The authors of this study wish to present the history of SAP as well as its development from the foundation up to now and the most important integrated systems offered for domestic companies. In addition the authors also want to give an overview of the role of SAP in the Hungarian higher education system. The Theory and Importance of Value-Added External Trade Péter Bánhegyi The investigation of processes behind traditional external data has strengthened in past years due to presence of global production chains. There are different concepts and calculations describing this phenomenon. The goal of this paper is to present the most important theoretical results in closed mathematical and comparable form. This paper does not contain further empirical analysis, it rather aims at making tools of this type of investigation more graphic. Individual countries get S dimensions in the closed form y = (E-A)-1c, and they are amplified to S*N dimensions by these tools in order to obtain coordinates of goods and services flows from individual sectors by partner countries directly in this S*N space. In this way results from different concepts of external trade can be compared with each other directly.
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Abstracts
Social and Labour Force Disadvantages of Women in Hungary Anikó Dános The situation of women in the labour market of the European Union is still more unfavourable than the situation of men. The unemployment rate of women is high, and even if they are employed, their average wage is 16% lower than the average of men; however women are better educated on average. The Commission drew the attention of the governments of EU states to provide a more effective childcare system for women with children in order to facilitate their work. Women's unemployment rate is lower in Hungary than the average in the European Union, but at the same time the unemployment rate of women is higher than that of men. The labour market is quite inflexible and insecure; the proportion of part-time employment is low. The women’s disadvantages manifest themselves in various dimensions. Female labour plays a secondary role in the labour market. Women often have to interrupt their careers for childbirth or childrearing. Due to the glass-ceiling effect women’s career possibilities are limited. The female segments of the labour market often offer unfavourable conditions. Women are employed at the lower levels of the income hierarchy and the incomes for the same position are generally lower for women than for men. Women’s opportunities for protect their interests are weak and they were getting worse after the transition period. The Philosophy of Crying and Laughter Zoltán Frenyó The paper gives a survey on the interpretations of the greatest philosophers on crying and laughter, and investigates the personal disposition and mentality of the philosophers concerning crying and laughter. The main thesis of the paper is that crying and laughter have the same roots; i.e. both of them occurs in an extraordinary, non-adequate situation of the soul, when the supervision over the soul becomes slacked. As regards the sentiments of the philosophers, one can easily understand the melancholy as a typical disposition of the philosopher’s soul which becomes deeply shocked concentrating the final questions, the reason of being and life. But on the other hand we have to make it obvious, that the philosopher has also to take care of a kind of serenity and mild hilarity of his soul on the basis of his final reasons. A French Painter in Hungary: Louis Tinayre (1861-1942) Rita Kissné Budai Louis Tinayre came to Hungary in his youth as a refugee of the Paris Commune, to be a french-speaking companion in a rich Hungarian family. He quickly learned Hungarian and enjoyed living here. He moved to Budapest after finishing the science school in Kassa, to continue his studies in the Academy of Arts with his brother. He regarded Hungary his second home, and later he recorded his memories of the eight years that he spent here in a memoire. This manuscript is a unique jewel of French-Hungarian cultural relations, and would deserve further research.
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The Difficulty of Measuring the Innovative Marketing Activity of Knowledge-Intensive Business Services Györgyi Kővágó Knowledge-intensive services are seen to have an increased importance for learning and innovation activity in a more knowledge-based economy. The business services sector and knowledge-intensive businesses over the past 10-15 years, had a significant change, and changed parallel to this, the industry has evolved loaded role and the scope of the tools and methods they used as well. Structural transformation and expansion of services will increasingly become a major driving force in economic development, in which the knowledge-intensive business services have a crucial role. This is visible in both number of employees employed in the service sector and in the sector share of growth of the gross domestic product. That is why it would be important to be able to more precisely measure the development of this sector. The Issue of “Narrative Identity” in Philosophy György Miklós In the present study the author wants to emphasize the importance of narrative identity. This philosophic notion is usually called “out-of-date”, but the author thinks that at the beginning of the 21. century philosophers should return to this notion which is able to unify the split-up world. By means of narrative identity and hermeneutics philosophers could stop the decay generated by the positivist philosophy. Analysis of Foreign Direct Investments in Slovakia Erzsébet Suhányi Foreign direct investments have a variety of direct and indirect effects on the economy of host country, which in turn have an impact on its economic policy. FDI in most cases bring change on the supply side of the economy, new job opportunities and increase the performance of the economy. The aim of the paper is to examine the inflow of foreign direct investment for a certain period and their impact on the evolution of unemployment rate and the evolution of the gross domestic product in Slovakia. The paper also examines the number of investment projects and the various forms of investment incentives granted to investors with a view to increasing employment. Analysis of the Evolution of Tax Rates and Tax Quotas Erzsébet Suhányi, Jarmila Horváthová The aim of this paper is to characterize the tax system in the Slovak Republic; to analyze the evolution of tax rates, which represent the income of the state budget (with an emphasis on personal income tax, corporate income tax and value added tax), from the first year of the introduction of these taxes to the present; to compare the overall tax burden of the entities in the European Union with two developed countries of the world; to analyze and to compare the total tax burden on entities in the Slovak Republic and in the European Union. In pursuit of the tax burden will be used the indicator of tax quotas, which is currently the most common indicator of measurement and comparison of the tax burden.
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Abstracts
On the Verge of Past and Future Olga Szűcs The main problem of this paper concerns the contemporary role of applied arts and the meaning of art. Our main question is what are the criterions of the quality of art? This problem is especially relevant from the aspect of applied arts. According to the author, this problem touches very important questions of society, globalism, postmodernism and virtual nature – some of the most important aspects of our society. The author tries to explain the personality-making nature of applied arts in the contexts of our civilization. Magyar politika és az Európai Unió 2010 utáni reflexiók Monika Pál A cikk a magyar kormány és az Európai Unió viszonyának néhány spektusát tárgyalja a 2010-os kormányváltás utáni időszakban. 2010 óta a korábbi Európa-barát konszenzus egyértelműen megtört a mérsékelt jobboldali politikai eliten belül. Jelen cikkben a szerző ennek a változásnak a motivációit keresi és azt állítja, hogy a kormány „kettős beszéd” logikus és tágabb elméleti térben is értelmezhető. A „kettős beszédnek” ideológiai, történelmi, valamint instrumentális elemei is felfedezhetőek. Ezek pedig mindenképp hatnak a választók Európaképére. Annak ellenére, hogy az EU-scepticizmus felé fordulás nem drasztikus, de a választók egyre nagyobb mértékben és egyértelműen szkeptikusak az Unióval szemben. Az állatfarmok szennyvízének újrahasznosítása Turc B., Petroman I., Petroman Cornelia, Lozici Ana, Marin Diana, Momir Bogdan Az új szennyvízkezelő berendezések segítségével csökkenteni lehet az állatfarmok vizének szennyezettségi fokát, amely szennyezés negatív hatással van az állat-, illetve növényvilágra egyaránt. Ugyanakkor kimutatható, hogy a szennyvízkezelő berendezések használata nem szennyezi a körülötte lévő levegő minőségét, a kezelt víz jó minőségű, például a BOD5 eléri a 40 mg/l-t és a O2 mennyisége 8-10 mg/l között változik. Ezek az adatok tökéletesen megfelelnek a biodiverzitás fenntartására az elemzett térségben. Sertésfarmok által szennyezett térségek felszín alatti vizeinek menedzsmentje Petroman Cornelia, Lozici Ana, Ispravnic Liana, Petroman I., Marin Diana, Ciolac Ramona, Vãduva Loredana A tanulmány a felszín alatti vizek minőségét kívánja elemezni organoleptikus és fizikai-kémiai mutatók segítségével egy elemzett farm érintettségi körzetében. A Ph-érték emelkedett a elszíni vízben, de nem haladja meg a 6,5 és 7,4 közötti értékeket. A vzből nyert minta esetében a víz színében voltak eltérések, az elemzett mintákban két fok. Tanulmány a szennyvíztisztítóból kijövő, állatfarmokból származó víz minőségéről Cãprar D., Petroman Cornelia, Ispravnic Liana, Petroman I., Marin Diana, Ciolac Ramona, Chirila Cosmina A szennyvíz minőségének ellenőrzése az APM-ek és a gazdasági kirendeltségek által birtokolt saját laboratóriumok elsődleges adataira épül, illetve azokra az adatokra, amelyeket a környezeti tényezők monitorizálása során feldolgoznak és az APM-eknek azonos időközönként elküldenek.
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Tudományos Mozaik 10.
TPF
Az intenzív tenyésztési technológiák kutatása a tojótyúk tenyésztésében fogyasztásra szánt tojások előállítása esetében Fraiu Gianina, Petroman I., Benk A., Petroman Cornelia, Marin Diana, Serban Victoria, Turc Bogdan Az intenzív technológiától függetlenül a táplálás fontos szerepet játszik a tojás termelésében mind a táplált tojó, mind pedig a tojás minősége szempontjából. A tetszés szerint kukoricaliszttel és gazdag takarmánnyal való táplálás sötét színű és 175-180 gramm súlyú tojásokat eredményez. Körültekintő táplálás mellett sem haladhatja meg a fogyasztás a 114/gramm/tojó mennyiséget. Biogazdálkodás Romániában – jellegzetességek és perspektívák Iancu Mihaela, Iancu Tiberiu, Tabita Hurmuzache, Iuliana Merce A biogazdálkodás nagymértékben hozzájárul a fenntartható fejlődéshez, a magas hozzáadott értéket teremtő gazdasági tevékenységekhez és növeli a vidéki térségek iránti érdeklődést. Mostanában a mezőgazdaság és a biotermelés egy jelentős fejlődésről tett tanúbizonyságot, nő azok száma, akik biogazdálkodással foglalkoznak, ide tartoznak a farmerek, a termelők, a feldolgozók és az importőrök. A román vidéki turizmus tevékenységének elemzése Iancu Tiberiu, Brad Ioan, Pirvulescu Luminita, Iosim Iasmina, Anda Ioana Milin A vidéki turizmus egy komplex gazdasági tevékenység széles hatósugárral, olyan célokkal, amelyek – sajátos mechanizmus által – rávilágítanak a vidéki turisták tevékenységére. A vidéki térségek keresése a pihenés és rekreáció céljából általános trenddé vált. Számos turisztikai szervezet Európában igyekszik megszervezni és intézményesíteni a vidéki térségek turizmusát annak érdekében, hogy ezt a trendet kövessék. A napraforgódara takarmányban való kombinált felhasználásának az állatállomány teljesítményére gyakorolt pozitív hatása Petroman I., Sãrãndan H., Fraiu Gianina, Petroman Cornelia, Marin Diana, Ciolac Ramona, Lozici Ana, Bogoşel Florin Az állatok táplálásakor használt kiegészítők javítják az emészthetőséget különösen akkor, ha a fejadagban túlnyomórészt napraforgó található különböző arányban. A napraforgó felhasználása a fejadagokban csökkenti a táplálás költségeit és pozitív hatása van a fiatal állatok növekedésére, miközben a megbetegedések aránya nem haladja meg a normális határt. A romániai városi és vidéki térségek egészségügyi szolgáltatásainak kutatása Ioana Anda Milin, Ioan Fruja, Iuliana Ioana Merce, Bianca Alina Bilia Az „egészségi állapot” egy komplex probléma sokoldalúságára utal az egyén és sajátos társadalmi, regionális és nemzeti csoportok esetében. Egy népesség egészségi állapota rávilágít az életszínvonal különböző alkotóelemeire, ezen belül a orvosi szolgálat minőségére. A romániai egészségügyi reform a magán és állami szektorbeli egészségügyi rendszer infrastruktúrájának változásához vezetett, illetve hatott a létszámra is, amely vidéken és a városokban ezt az ellátását biztosítja. A tanulmány a következő témákra tér ki: - európai összehasonlítás az egészségügyi szolgáltatás terén; - az egészségügyi egységek romániai hálózata és ezek térségi megoszlása; - az egészségügyi szakemberek regionális megoszlása. A tanulmányban bemutatott kutatás következtetése az, hogy igazolni látja az urbánus és vidéki térségek infrastrukturális és egészségügyi szolgáltatások terén mutatkozó különbségeit a vidéki térségek hátrányára. - 297 -
Abstracts
Az Apuseni Természeti Park lehetőségei az ökoturizmus terén Iuliana Ioana Merce, Ioana Anda Milin, Tiberiu Iancu, Ioana Merce, Bianca Alina Bilia A jelen tanulmány azt vizsgálja, hogy az ember hogyan tudja befolyásolni, menedzselni és helyreállítani a természeti rendszereket, mindezt egy regionális vetület mentén, a Nyugati hegység rendszerében vizsgálva. Az Apuseni hegység körzete Románia területének 5.9%-át fedi le, és 2010-ben az ország lakosságának 2%-a élt itt. Az Apuseni Természeti Park a Nyugati hegység középső és észak-nyugati térségében található, Bihar jelentős részét és Vladeasa északi részét fedi le. Ennek térségnek a nagy előnye a sajátos karszt terep, és számos egyedi barlang és karsztjelenség megléte. A nemzetközi agroturizmus hagyományával rendelkező települések Ramona Ciolac, I. Csősz, I. Petroman , Cornelia Petroman, T. Iancu, Iasmina Iosim, Diana Marin, Ana Mariana Dincu A falu potenciáljának tőkésítési tevékenysége során született az ötlet, amely által a hagyományos tevékenységeket ötvözték a vendéglátással és a rekreálódással. Az agroturizmus jelentősége a XX. század második felében kezdett növekedni főleg Európában. A vidéken töltött szabadság a tiszta levegőt, természetet és zöld tereket kedvelők szokásává vált. A vidéki turizmus speciális formáinak nagyon széles spektruma ismert azon országokban, ahol ennek hagyományai vannak (pl. Franciaország, Svájc, Írország, Ausztria, Németország stb.) Az európai turizmus fejlesztési stratégiái Ioan Csősz, Andrea Miklósné Zakar, Ramona Ciolac, Simona Martin A turizmus jelentős szereppel bírhat az európai régiók fejlődésében. A turizmus számára létrehozott infrastruktúra hozzájárul a helyi fejlesztésekhez, és munkahelyeket teremt, amely által az ipari vagy vidéki hanyatlást ellensúlyozhatja. A fenntartható turizmus magában foglalja a kulturális és természeti örökség megőrzését és fejlesztését: a helyi gasztronómiától a művészetig, vagy a biodiverzitás megőrzéséig. Valójában a turizmus egy társadalmi, kulturális és környezeti vonatkozásokkal bíró fontos tevékenység, amely számos kisés középvállalat tevékenységét is magában foglalja. A turizmusnak a gazdasági növekedéshez és a foglalkoztatáshoz való hozzájárulása az EU régióiban változó mértékű. Hírverési- és manipulációs technikák - esettanulmány Iasmina Iosim, Tiberiu Iancu, Diana Marin, Gabriela Popescu, Luminita Pirvulescu, Carmen Dumitrescu A jelen tanulmány igyekszik elemezni a Verespatak ügyében – napjaink egyik nagyon népszerű témájában – használt hírverési és manipulációs módozatokat. Verespatak Európa egyik legrégebbi térsége és közismert az aranybányászat kapcsán. Úgy véljük, hogy ez egy fontos térség, ahol a turizmus fejleszthető lehetne annak érdekében, hogy a lakosságnak alternatívát kínálhasson a megélhetést és a kulturális és természeti örökségvédelmet illetően. A turizmus befolyásolja a helybeli lakosok életmódját és szélesíti a szellemi horizontjukat azzal, hogy bátorítja a hagyományok őrzését, kiküszöböli az általánosítás és standardizálás trendjeit, megtartja a szocio-kulturális identitást. Ezek által a román turizmus sajátos egyéniséget szerez a globális turizmuson belül. Verespatak ügye egy nagyon aktuális problematika számos pro- és kontra érvvel, de ha a bányászat beindul a településen, akkor már nincs értelme a térségbeli turizmusról beszélni.
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Tudományos Mozaik 10.
TPF
A vidéki turizmus lehetőségei Arad megyében Andreea Romana Tucudean, Ioan Csősz, Simona Martin Nagy néprajzi régiók között, Kőrös vidéke, Mócok Földje és Bánát, illetve Magyarország szomszédságában, Arad megye többszörös interferenciák térsége. Földrajzi térszerkezete már az ősi időkben ideális helyszíne volt az emberi települések kialakításához, hiszen alföldi típusú térségeket és dombságot, illetve hegyvidéket egyaránt magában foglal, gazdag folyórendszerrel bír, változatos altalaj kincsekkel rendelkezik és éghajlata is kedvező. Mindemellett a megye egyedisége a sajátos etnikai sokszínűségben is rejlik. Arad megye számos térségében a vidéki turizmus fontos szereppel bír, ezek a térségek különböznek egymástól a természeti és humán potenciált, a turisztikai erőforrások típusát és csoportjait, a turisztikai potenciál hasznosításának módját és az infrastruktúrát tekintve. Példaként említhetjük a Maros völgyét, a Béli-hegységet és a Nagyhalmágy-Gurahonc térséget. Tanulmány a romániai mezőgazdaságban foglalkoztatottak helyzetéről Brad Ioan, Tiberiu Iancu, Ana Mariana Dincu, Remus Gherman A munka minden gazdasági tevékenység meghatározó termelési tényezője, ily módon a fejlődés és az emberi társadalom jólétének elsődleges eleme. A munka egy input egy sor olyan egyedi jellemzővel, amelyek megkülönböztetik a többi tényezőtől. Ezek a sajátos tulajdonságok abból adódnak, hogy a munkát emberek végzik, magában foglal számos emberi tényezőt, amelyek nincsenek jelen a többi termelési tényezőben. A vidéki turizmus fejlesztésének lehetőségei Caras térségében Ana Mariana Dincu, Ioan Brad, Cristian Mincã, Remus Gherman A legtöbb fejlett országban a vidéki turizmusra úgy tekintenek, mint a helyi és regionális gazdaság-fejlesztés fontos eszközére. Caras térség néhány turisztikai erőforrása önállóan is jelentős turisztikai forgalmat generál. Ezek alkotják Caras, mint turisztikai úti cél „image”-ét, és meghatározzák a turisztikai forgalmat egy adott térségben (emellett számos pozitív és negatív hatása van a csúcsidőszakban). A sertéstrágya hatékony menedzselésére tett javaslat családi gazdálkodások számára Marin Diana, Petroman I., Ciolac Ramona, Petroman Cornelia, Lozici Ana, Serban Victoria A nagy sertésfarmok nagyfokú környezetszennyező hatással bírnak, mivel hatalmas méretűek, illetve nem tartják be a trágyakezelési és szennyvízkezelési normákat. Ezért sűrgősen szükséges azon technológiáknak a reformja, amelyek a trágya és a szennyvíz összegyűjtését, tárolását és kezelését megoldják. De mindemellett a különböző méretű farmok hatékony sertéstrágya menedzselésének kidolgozására is nagy szükség van. A multinacionális vállalatok, mint a külföldi tőkebefektetések hordozói Marjanovic Darko, Ahmetagic Deniz A multinacionális vállalatok a világgazdaság és a globalizációs folyamat fő mozgatórugói, és ezért a külföldi tőkeberuházások legfontosabb irányítói. A XXI. század eleje a világ fejlődése szempontjából bonyolult folyamatok által jellemezhető, és a gazdaságot a fejlett országok, a multinacionális vállalatok és a legújabb technológia dominálják. Amikor a külföldi tőkebefektetőkről és egy adott országban lévő befektetéseikről beszélünk, akkor először a multinacionális vállalatokra gondolunk, akik olyan országokba vitték a tőkét, technológiát, know-how-t, amelyek nem tudták saját erőforrásból finanszírozni a fejlődést, de céljuk a külföldi befektetések vonzása. Minden multinacionális vállalat külföldi országba tör-
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Abstracts
ténő befektetésének fő célja a profitszerzés, az új piacok meghódítása, a saját erőforrások kedvező feltételek mentén való felhasználása, az adórendszer kedvezményeinek kihasználása stb. Hogy megelőzzék a fejlesztések késlekedését, számos ország felajánlja a multinacionális vállalatok számára az adókedvezmények különböző formáit: alacsony adókat, adó elengedését. Ilyen formában ezek hozzájárulnak egy kedvező befektetési környezet kialakításához a külföldi befektetések számára. A romániai fürdőturizmus fejlesztési stratégiái Tabita Hurmuzache, Iancu Tiberiu, Iancu Mihaela, Andrea Feher, Cosmina Toader, Remus Gherman, Dana Sâmbotin A fürdőturizmus a turizmus sajátos formája, amely az utóbbi évtizedekben jelentős fejlődésnek indult. Ennek oka a növekvő stressz, a foglalkozási betegségek és a modern városi életritmus előretörése. A fürdők fejlesztésének mind makro-, mind pedig mikroökonómiai hatásai vannak, ezáltal a legfontosabb turisztikai formák közé pozicionálódik.
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